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(https://www.psypost.org/pornography-induced-arousal-predicts-declines-in-relationship-satisfaction-and-stability-study-finds/) Pornography-induced arousal predicts declines in relationship satisfaction and stability, study finds
Mar 23rd 2025, 10:00

A study conducted in Australia found that individuals who reported being more easily sexually aroused by pornography tended to experience a decrease in sexual satisfaction, as well as in relationship quality and stability, over the following two months. The paper was published in the (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-024-02985-4) Archives of Sexual Behavior.
Sexual arousal is a physiological and psychological response to sexual stimuli. It is regulated by the nervous system and hormones, particularly dopamine, oxytocin, and testosterone. Physical signs of sexual arousal include an increased heart rate, genital swelling, vaginal lubrication in females, and erection in males.
Sexual arousal plays an important role in the functioning and stability of romantic relationships. When a person is sexually aroused by their partner, they are more likely to feel motivated to engage with their partner and enjoy satisfying sexual activity. Such individuals are also more inclined to invest effort in maintaining the relationship.
However, a romantic partner is not the only source of sexual arousal. People can become aroused by sexual fantasies, as well as by pornography. Research indicates that 70–80% of men and 35–60% of women in romantic relationships report using pornography.
The study’s authors, Nicholas J. Lawless and Gery C. Karantzas, sought to explore the association between pornography use and the stability and quality of romantic relationships, as well as sexual satisfaction. They hypothesized that individuals who are sexually aroused by their romantic partners would experience improvements in relationship quality over time. However, they were uncertain whether arousal to pornography would be linked to improvements or declines in relationship quality and sought to investigate this further.
The study included 309 participants, aged between 18 and 72, who reported being in a romantic relationship for at least six months. Sixty-six percent identified as heterosexual, and 25% as bisexual. On average, participants had been with their current partner for seven years. Nine percent reported being in a non-monogamous relationship, and 71% had no children.
Participants completed online assessments measuring arousal to their partner (e.g., “When I looked at my partner, I felt sexually aroused”), arousal to pornography (e.g., “When I thought about using pornography, I felt turned on”), relationship quality (e.g., “How satisfied are you with your relationship?”), relationship stability (e.g., “I find myself wishing that my partner and I weren’t romantically involved”), and sexual satisfaction (e.g., “My sex life is fulfilling”). Two months later, participants completed the same set of assessments again. The second survey also included a measure of socially desirable responding.
Results showed that participants who reported higher levels of arousal toward their romantic partner tended to have better relationship quality, greater stability, and higher sexual satisfaction in both surveys. In contrast, individuals who reported greater arousal to pornography in the initial survey were more likely to report lower relationship stability and reduced sexual satisfaction two months later. They also tended to use pornography more frequently.
“Our findings suggest that porn arousal is associated with reductions in an array of relational outcomes over time. These findings have important implications for future research in understanding how feeling sexually aroused by porn can have negative downstream effects on relationship well-being,” the study authors concluded.
While the study sheds light on the links between pornography use and relationship quality, it is important to note that the sample was drawn from an online population, which may not reflect the broader general population. Results from more representative samples may differ.
The paper “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-024-02985-4) Porn or Partner Arousal? When It Comes to Romantic Relationships, Not All Sexual Arousal Is Equal: A Prospective Study” was authored by Nicholas J. Lawless and Gery C. Karantzas.

(https://www.psypost.org/social-media-may-be-trapping-us-in-a-cycle-of-loneliness-new-study-suggests/) Social media may be trapping us in a cycle of loneliness, new study suggests
Mar 23rd 2025, 08:00

Spending time on social media, whether you are simply scrolling through posts or actively engaging with others, may contribute to increased feelings of loneliness over time, according to new research. A study published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672241295870) Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin revealed that both types of social media use are associated with a rise in loneliness, suggesting that online interactions may not adequately replace the social fulfillment gained from face-to-face relationships.
In recent years, both social media use and reported loneliness have increased significantly. Despite the promise of social media to connect people and build communities, many individuals report feeling more disconnected than ever. Reports from organizations like the U.S. Surgeon General have highlighted a growing “(https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf) epidemic of loneliness,” noting that a lack of social connection can be as detrimental to health as smoking 15 cigarettes a day.
While some research has suggested social media might alleviate loneliness, other studies have indicated a potential negative impact. To gain clarity on this mixed picture—and to examine the specific ways people use social media—researchers conducted the new study to investigate how different types of social media engagement affect feelings of loneliness over an extended period.
“The last 10-plus years of my research focus has been on phone and social media use and their impact on well-being,” said study author (https://news.web.baylor.edu/experts/expert-directory?expert=james.robertsphd) James A. Roberts, the Ben H. Williams Professor of Marketing in the Hankamer School of Business at Baylor University. “But we also know that it is not simply a matter of more social media use leading to poorer health outcomes—it might make a difference how that social media is used. The current epidemic of loneliness, both in the United States and abroad, and the severe negative implications of being lonely make this topic of critical importance to researchers.”
The research team utilized data from a large-scale, long-term study in the Netherlands called the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences panel. This panel study has been collecting annual data from a representative sample of Dutch households since 2008. For this particular study, the researchers analyzed nine years of data, from 2014 to 2022. The sample included 6,965 adult participants, with slightly more than half being women. The average age of participants at the start of the study was around 50 years old. Participants completed surveys each year, answering questions about their social media use and feelings of loneliness.
The researchers were interested in two main types of social media use: passive and active. Passive social media use was defined as the time spent reading and viewing content without directly interacting—for example, scrolling through news feeds or browsing profiles. Participants estimated how many hours per week they spent on this type of browsing. Active social media use, by contrast, included time spent posting messages, photos, and videos, as well as engaging with others by liking or commenting on their posts. Participants also reported how many hours per week they engaged in this type of active use.
To measure loneliness, the study used a well-established six-item questionnaire. This measure asked participants about various aspects of loneliness, such as feeling a sense of emptiness, whether they had people to rely on, and how connected they felt to others. Participants rated their agreement with these statements, and their responses were combined to generate a loneliness score.
The researchers then used statistical models designed to track change over time to examine how different types of social media use related to loneliness. These models allowed them to assess how social media use at one time point predicted loneliness in later years, and vice versa, across the nine-year period.
The findings revealed a significant association between both passive and active social media use and increased loneliness over time. Individuals who reported more passive browsing at the start of the study tended to experience greater increases in loneliness in subsequent years. This suggests that spending more time scrolling through content without engaging may contribute to growing feelings of isolation.
More surprisingly, active social media use—typically thought to be more socially beneficial—was also linked to increasing loneliness over time. Participants who spent more time posting and engaging with others reported a sharper rise in loneliness as the years progressed. This finding challenges the popular notion that active participation on social media helps reduce loneliness. Instead, it suggests that even seemingly interactive online experiences may not offer the depth of connection that in-person relationships provide.
“Our results confirm my suspicions that no matter how it’s used, social media is a poor substitute for face-to-face interaction,” Roberts told PsyPost. “This suggests a coming public crisis as younger generations spend more time and are highly attached (if not addicted) to social media.”
The study also uncovered a feedback loop between social media use and loneliness. Not only did greater social media use predict increased loneliness, but feeling lonely also predicted more social media use over time. This pattern implies that people may turn to social media to ease their loneliness, but that increased use might only worsen those feelings.
“I think the major takeaway from our study should be that social media use is a poor substitute for person-to-person interaction,” Roberts said. “Our results suggest that no matter how one uses social media—actively or passively—such use leads to higher levels of loneliness. The fact that young people spend so much time on social media makes the implications of our findings all the more important. Along with increasing levels of social media use across all age categories, we have, surprisingly, found attendant higher levels of loneliness. Ironically, social media does not deliver on its core promise to bring us closer to others.”
While the study provides meaningful insight, it also comes with limitations. Most notably, it relies on self-reported measures of social media use and loneliness, which can be influenced by memory or social desirability biases. Participants may not accurately recall how much time they spent online or may underreport their feelings of loneliness. Future research could benefit from objective measures, such as tracking real-time app usage.
Another area for future study is the type of content people engage with on social media. Some interactions—like seeing posts that trigger social comparison or exclusion—may be more harmful than others. Understanding which online behaviors are most closely tied to loneliness could help guide healthier digital habits.
“More research is needed that investigates how different social media apps affect well-being,” Roberts said. “Sadly, my research with others suggests that the newest generation of social media—short-form video platforms like TikTok, Instagram Reels, and YouTube Shorts—are even more addictive than the more traditional forms of social media, like Facebook. This will only exacerbate the loneliness of an online existence.”
“Our primary goal is to better understand how and why social media can be an alienating force. Fear of missing out has been extensively researched, but it suggests one way social media makes us feel worse is by showing us everything we were not included in. Upward social comparisons also negatively affect well-being. But we shouldn’t overlook a simpler explanation: time spent on social media displaces time spent with others. Most social media is consumed in isolation.”
“Loneliness is a significant health crisis with serious health implications for individuals, their relationships, work performance, and broader society, which must deal with the fallout. The negative outcomes associated with increasing levels of loneliness are real and far-reaching,” Roberts concluded.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672241295870) The Epidemic of Loneliness: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study of the Impact of Passive and Active Social Media Use on Loneliness,” was authored by James A. Roberts, Phil D. Young, and Meredith E. David.

(https://www.psypost.org/feeling-forgiven-by-god-can-reduce-the-likelihood-of-apologizing-psychology-study-finds/) Feeling forgiven by God can reduce the likelihood of apologizing, psychology study finds
Mar 23rd 2025, 07:00

People who believe they’ve been forgiven by God may be more likely to forgive themselves after hurting someone—but this self-forgiveness doesn’t always lead them to apologize. In fact, a new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672241312265) Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin found that divine forgiveness can actually make people less likely to apologize by satisfying their internal need for resolution. At the same time, divine forgiveness can also boost feelings of gratitude and humility, which, in turn, can lead to more heartfelt and sincere apologies. The study reveals that divine forgiveness works through two opposing pathways—one that inhibits and one that supports the act of apologizing.
The researchers set out to better understand how spiritual experiences affect interpersonal conflict. While many past studies have linked divine forgiveness to emotional well-being, there has been little investigation into how feeling forgiven by a higher power might shape the way people treat others after a wrongdoing.
“My research interests lie at the intersection of conflict resolution and morality. A key area I explore is how transgressors self-regulate after wrongdoing and how this shapes their willingness to apologize and make amends,” said study author Justin M. Ludwig, a PhD candidate at the University of Pittsburgh.
“This study, which examines the role of divine forgiveness in apology behavior, was a natural extension of my research. Additionally, much of the existing work on religiosity and conflict resolution focuses on the victim’s perspective, and psychological research on divine forgiveness is still in its early stages.”
“I wanted to address these gaps by examining how divine forgiveness impacts the wrongdoer and their willingness to make amends with those they have harmed. Given that most people identify as religious, understanding how religious beliefs and experiences influence the wrongdoer’s apology behavior can offer insight into ways of fostering more constructive responses to conflict.”
To investigate this, the researchers conducted two studies. In the first study, 435 participants were asked to think about a time they had done something to hurt, upset, or offend someone, and that the situation was still unresolved. These participants were recruited from Christian, Jewish, and Muslim backgrounds. They were asked to complete several questionnaires. One questionnaire measured how much they felt God had forgiven them for the specific offense they recalled.
Another measured their level of self-forgiveness in relation to that same offense. Participants were also asked how likely they would be to apologize to the person they had hurt. Finally, they were instructed to write an email to this person, saying whatever they wanted to say about the offense, under the pretense that it would be sent at the end of the study (it was not actually sent). These emails were later analyzed by independent individuals who did not know the participants’ questionnaire responses. These individuals assessed whether the emails contained an apology or showed remorse, and they also judged the overall quality and sincerity of any apologies made.
The second study involved 531 participants and used a similar approach, but with an experimental twist. Like in the first study, participants recalled an offense and completed questionnaires. However, before completing the questionnaires, participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. One group was asked to imagine that God had forgiven them for what they did and to think about how that would make them feel. Another group was asked to imagine that God had not forgiven them and reflect on those feelings. The third group, the control group, received no specific instructions related to divine forgiveness.
After this, all participants completed questionnaires measuring self-forgiveness, as well as feelings of gratitude and humility related to the offense. They again indicated how likely they were to apologize and wrote an email to the person they had offended, which was analyzed in the same way as in the first study.
The results of both studies revealed a consistent pattern. The researchers discovered that when people felt more forgiven by God, they also tended to feel more self-forgiven. This connection between divine forgiveness and self-forgiveness was present in both studies, even when considering other factors like the seriousness of the offense or how close they were to the person they hurt.
“I was surprised that our findings were consistent across Christian, Jewish, and Muslim participants,” Ludwig told PsyPost. “I had expected to see differences among these religious groups, but it appears that experiences of divine forgiveness influence their conflict resolution behavior in similar ways.”
Interestingly, this increased self-forgiveness was linked to a decrease in apology behavior. In both studies, people who reported higher self-forgiveness were less likely to say they would apologize and their emails were judged as showing less remorse, lower quality apologies, and less sincerity. This suggests that when individuals believe they are already forgiven by God, they may feel less need to seek forgiveness or make amends directly with the person they harmed. It’s as if feeling right with God lessens the motivation to set things right with the person they wronged.
However, the second study also uncovered another side to divine forgiveness. The researchers found that experiencing divine forgiveness, specifically in the group that was asked to imagine God’s forgiveness, also led to increased feelings of thankfulness. These feelings of thankfulness, in turn, were connected to greater modesty.
And, importantly, this path – from divine forgiveness to thankfulness to modesty – was associated with a slight increase in apology behavior. This suggests that divine forgiveness can also encourage apologies by fostering positive emotions that make people more considerate of others. It appears that feeling forgiven by God can make some people feel grateful and humble, which then motivates them to be more conciliatory and apologetic.
“Divine forgiveness—the belief that one has been forgiven by God—is a deeply meaningful part of many people’s lives and can positively impact their well-being, including the ability to self-forgive after wrongdoing,” Ludwig said. “However, our research highlights an important consideration in situations where someone upsets, harms, or offends another person: while divine forgiveness for these interpersonal transgressions can promote self-forgiveness, it may also reduce the likelihood of apologizing—and apologizing well—to the person harmed.
“In these cases, transgressors may bypass the person they hurt, achieving self-forgiveness without making amends. Our findings suggest that when divine forgiveness leads to greater self-forgiveness, it can disrupt constructive responses—such as offering apologies—that are essential for repairing relationships.”
“At the same time, our research shows that divine forgiveness can also foster gratitude and humility, which in turn encourages sincere apologies,” Ludwig explained. “These findings suggest that cultivating gratitude and humility alongside self-forgiveness may help mitigate the potential negative effect of divine forgiveness on apology behavior.”
As with all research, there are some limitations to consider. The first study was correlational, meaning it could not prove that divine forgiveness causes changes in behavior. The offenses were also self-reported and varied widely in type and severity. Although the researchers used an experimental design in the second study, they relied on imagined scenarios, which may not fully capture how people would act in real-life situations. Additionally, the study focused mainly on monotheistic traditions, so the results may not apply to people from other faiths or spiritual backgrounds.
“Although we did not find differences across these three religious groups, this remains a rich area for further exploration,” Ludwig noted. “While our sample included a diverse group of religious participants, we focused only on the three largest Western monotheistic traditions. It is therefore important that the current findings are interpreted within the context of these religions and not generalized to all religions. Future research should examine whether these findings hold among other religious traditions.”
Looking ahead, the research team hopes to expand this line of work to examine how divine forgiveness might influence not just apology behavior but also whether people are more or less likely to repeat harmful actions.
“Psychological research on divine forgiveness is still relatively new but gaining traction,” Ludwig explained. “My long-term goal is to develop a more nuanced understanding of when divine forgiveness might interrupt apology behavior across faith traditions, and how it impacts other post-conflict outcomes beyond apologizing. In particular, I’m interested in investigating how and why divine forgiveness might reduce the likelihood of re-offending. I am also interested in developing a measure of collective divine forgiveness and examining how it might influence faith communities’ willingness to offer group-based apologies and engage in reparative efforts for historical and ongoing injustices.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672241312265) Implications of Divine Forgiveness for Conciliatory Behavior: Understanding How Feeling Forgiven by God Influences Apologies Via Self-Forgiveness, Gratitude, and Humility,” was authored by Justin M. Ludwig, Jonah Koetke, and Karina Schumann.

(https://www.psypost.org/shared-genes-explain-why-adhd-dyslexia-and-dyscalculia-often-occur-together-study-finds/) Shared genes explain why ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia often occur together, study finds
Mar 23rd 2025, 06:00

A recent study involving a large group of children has shed light on why attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, and dyscalculia frequently appear together. Researchers discovered that the likelihood of developing ADHD overlaps genetically with the likelihood of developing dyslexia and dyscalculia. This shared genetic basis helps explain why children with ADHD are more prone to experience difficulties in reading, spelling, and mathematics.
The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241293999) Psychological Science.
ADHD is a condition that affects a person’s ability to pay attention, control impulsive behaviors, and manage hyperactivity. Children with ADHD may find it hard to concentrate on tasks, sit still, or wait their turn. Dyslexia is a learning difficulty primarily affecting reading and spelling skills. Individuals with dyslexia often struggle with recognizing and manipulating sounds in words, which makes reading fluently and spelling accurately challenging. Dyscalculia is a learning difficulty that affects the ability to understand and work with numbers. Children with dyscalculia may have trouble with basic arithmetic, understanding mathematical concepts, and solving math problems.
Scientists have long observed that these three conditions—ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia—tend to occur together more often than would be expected by chance. For instance, a child diagnosed with ADHD is more likely to also be diagnosed with dyslexia or dyscalculia compared to a child without ADHD.
To understand the reasons behind this co-occurrence, researchers from the University of Amsterdam and the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands embarked on a detailed investigation. They wanted to move beyond simply noting that these conditions often appear together and explore the underlying causes. Specifically, they wanted to determine if this co-occurrence was due to one condition directly causing another, or if there was a different explanation, such as shared risk factors.
“ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia frequently co-occur, but why? Many assume that one condition causes the other. For example, children with learning difficulties may struggle to follow class instructions, which could make it harder for them to pay attention—potentially leading to ADHD symptoms,” explained study author (https://www.linkedin.com/in/evanbergen/) Elsje van Bergen, an associate professor at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and a visiting professor at the University of Oslo.
“Conversely, ADHD-related behaviors, such as difficulties with focus and impulsivity, might interfere with learning to read and do maths. However, this assumed causality had not been thoroughly tested. Understanding the underlying causes of these learning difficulties is crucial for designing effective support strategies.”
To conduct their study, the research team utilized data from the Netherlands Twin Register, a comprehensive database that includes information on twins and their families from across the Netherlands. They examined information from 19,125 twins, originating from 10,365 families. This large sample size provided a robust foundation for their findings. The researchers collected data at two different time points when the twins were around 7 years old and again when they were around 10 years old.
To assess ADHD symptoms, the children’s teachers completed questionnaires. These questionnaires asked about behaviors associated with ADHD, such as difficulty paying attention and hyperactivity, in the school setting. It is important to note that these questions focused on ADHD symptoms and did not include items related to learning or academic performance, ensuring a clear distinction between ADHD and learning difficulties.
To measure academic achievement, the researchers used scores from the national Pupil Monitoring System, a standardized testing system used in Dutch schools. This system provided objective measures of the children’s abilities in reading, spelling, and mathematics. Reading ability was assessed by measuring how fluently children could read words from a list. Spelling ability was measured through dictation tests where children had to spell words they heard. Math ability was evaluated using tests covering different areas of mathematics, including numbers, operations, ratios, fractions, measurement, and geometry.
The study revealed that a significant proportion of children experienced more than one of these difficulties. Specifically, the researchers found that 37% of children who met the criteria for ADHD also showed signs of dyslexia or dyscalculia. Looking at the individual conditions, they found that children with ADHD were approximately 2.7 times more likely to have dyslexia and 2.1 times more likely to have dyscalculia compared to children without ADHD. Similarly, children with dyslexia or dyscalculia were also more likely to have ADHD.
However, the most striking finding was related to the underlying causes of this co-occurrence. Through sophisticated statistical analyses, including examining data from twins, the researchers were able to explore the role of genetics. Twin studies are valuable for this type of research because identical twins share nearly all of their genes, while non-identical twins share only about half, similar to regular siblings. By comparing similarities and differences between identical and non-identical twins, researchers can estimate the influence of genes and environment on various traits.
The analyses revealed that the genetic factors that increase the risk for ADHD also overlap with the genetic factors that increase the risk for dyslexia and dyscalculia. In other words, there is a shared genetic predisposition. This means that individuals can inherit genetic variations that make them more susceptible to developing not just one, but potentially all three of these conditions.
The study’s findings strongly suggest that the reason why ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia often occur together is not primarily because one condition directly causes another. Instead, it is because they share common genetic roots. The learning problems seen in children with ADHD are not simply a direct consequence of their attention difficulties, but rather a reflection of this shared genetic vulnerability that affects both attention and learning abilities.
“Our findings suggest that one condition does not directly cause the other one,” van Bergen told PsyPost. “Instead, these conditions often co-occur because they share genetic risk factors. This means that if a child has a genetic predisposition for ADHD, they are also at increased risk for dyslexia and dyscalculia. As a result, treating ADHD alone won’t necessarily improve academic skills, and vice versa.”
“About 75% of differences among children in learning to read, spell, and do math are influenced by genetics. Similarly, differences among children in ADHD symptoms are about 75% due to genetic differences among them. This is not surprising to me, as it confirms earlier findings, but it may be surprising to readers new to behavioral genetics research.
“It is important to stress that this heritability figure refers to differences among children in, for instance, how easily they pick up learning to read,” van Bergen continued. “However, children learn these skills because of high-quality education, so that remains crucial. Teachers will recognize that even with high-quality instruction, pupils vary in the effort needed to learn these skills.”
While this study focused on genetic factors, the findings shouldn’t be misinterpreted as suggesting that environmental factors play no role in the co-occurrence of ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia. Understanding how genes and environment interact could provide a more complete picture.
“While genetics plays a large role, it does not mean that learning difficulties are fixed—early interventions and good teaching can still make a big difference,” van Bergen noted. “In (https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/edu0000489) another study, we found that children with a family history of dyslexia also benefit from reading intervention.”
Looking ahead, the researchers aim to further investigate the factors that shape educational outcomes in children. “I aim to better understand how genetic and environmental factors interact to shape children’s educational outcomes,” van Bergen explained. “By including genetics, we can get a clearer picture of what in the environment matters most. This knowledge can then inform research on tailored approaches to support children’s cognitive development.”
“I’d like to emphasize that recognizing the genetic basis of learning difficulties is not about labelling children, but about understanding their needs. Schools and clinicians should be aware that while ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia can co-occur, each requires targeted support. At the same time, most children (77%) with one of these conditions do not have another. This challenges the common assumption that developmental conditions always come in clusters.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241293999) Co-Occurrence and Causality Among ADHD, Dyslexia, and Dyscalculia,” was authored by Elsje van Bergen, Eveline L. de Zeeuw, Sara A. Hart, Dorret I. Boomsma, Eco J. C. de Geus, and Kees-Jan Kan.

(https://www.psypost.org/parents-insecure-attachment-styles-linked-to-harsh-discipline-of-children/) Parents’ insecure attachment styles linked to harsh discipline of children
Mar 22nd 2025, 12:00

A new study published in (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-85480-001) Family Relations highlights the connection between how parents relate to their romantic partners and how they discipline their young children. The researchers found that parents who feel insecure in their romantic relationships—either because they fear abandonment or prefer emotional distance—are more likely to use harsh discipline. This link is shaped by how confident parents feel in their parenting abilities and how well they can understand their children’s thoughts and feelings.
The researchers were interested in understanding why some parents are more likely than others to respond to their young children’s misbehavior with yelling, threats, or even physical punishment. Prior research has shown that harsh discipline is not only common—especially in early childhood—but also harmful. It can increase the risk of emotional and behavioral problems in children and lead to long-term mental health challenges. While most studies have focused on general stress or child behavior as causes, the new study aimed to dig deeper into the emotional roots of parenting practices—especially the influence of romantic attachment styles between parents.
“We noticed a growing severity of mental health problems among children and adolescents. Our clinical experience suggests that these issues may be related to parent-child relationships,” said study author Yili Wu, a professor and senior scientist at Wenzhou Medical University.
“Some problems can start in early childhood but become more evident during adolescence. For example, extensive evidence highlights that harsh parenting methods can lead to behavioral problems in children. Based on these well-established associations, we sought to explore further: if certain parenting strategies are known to be harmful, how can we prevent them or identify the risks in advance?”
“Therefore, we aimed to identify the factors that contribute to parents’ use of suboptimal behaviors, to understand how they are linked, and to determine whether we can recognize the risks in advance before they occur. Additionally, we’ve observed that the quality of parent’ intimate relationships, including their lack of security, can also impact parent-child relationships. Anxiety and avoidance in romantic attachment may shape emotional experience and behavioral styles in intimate partnerships, which in turn may extend to parent-child interactions.”
“Thus, we decided to investigate the relationship between romantic attachment and harsh parenting exists, as well as whether the two dimensions of romantic attachment (i.e., anxiety and avoidance) show different pathways to harsh discipline,” Wu explained.
Attachment anxiety refers to a tendency to worry about being rejected or unloved in close relationships. People high in attachment anxiety often seek excessive closeness and reassurance, and they may feel insecure or clingy. Attachment avoidance, on the other hand, involves discomfort with emotional intimacy and a preference for independence. Those high in avoidance tend to distrust others and keep their distance in relationships to protect themselves from vulnerability.
The researchers recruited 489 Chinese parents of children under the age of five. The majority were mothers (86.7%), with an average age of about 34 years. The participants completed a series of questionnaires assessing their romantic attachment style, how often they used harsh discipline, their capacity to understand their child’s thoughts and emotions, and how competent they felt as parents.
The study used two analytical approaches. The first focused on attachment as two continuous traits—anxiety and avoidance. The second grouped participants into three distinct attachment profiles: secure (low anxiety and avoidance), dismissive (high avoidance, average anxiety), and fearful (high in both anxiety and avoidance).
In the first analysis, the researchers found that parents high in attachment anxiety were more likely to use harsh discipline, and this link was explained in part by two factors: their difficulty in understanding their child’s mental experiences and their lack of confidence as parents. These two beliefs were linked in a chain, with low reflective functioning leading to reduced parenting confidence, and in turn, more harsh discipline.
On the other hand, parents high in attachment avoidance were also more likely to use harsh discipline, but in their case, only low parenting confidence explained the connection. In other words, anxious parents struggled with both understanding their child and believing in themselves, while avoidant parents primarily struggled with the latter.
“While both attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted harsh discipline, anxiety had a stronger total effect on harsh discipline, which is majorly mediated by impaired reflective functioning,” Wu told PsyPost.
In the second analysis, which examined distinct attachment profiles, a similar pattern emerged. Compared to securely attached parents, those in the dismissive and fearful groups showed higher use of harsh discipline. Again, this relationship was explained by both lower ability to understand their child’s mental state and lower parenting confidence. The fearful group, in particular, showed the strongest association with harsh discipline, and their beliefs about both the child and themselves played a major role in that link.
“Parents with high attachment anxiety are more likely to have reduced reflective functioning (briefly, the ability to reflect on a child’s emotions), which in turn lead to more use of harsh discipline,” Wu said. “In contrast, parents with high attachment avoidance are more likely to show reduced sense of competence as a parent, which in turn lead to more use of harsh discipline.
“It’s beneficial for parents to learn more about their own attachment styles and try to understand their child’s psychological world. Recognizing what truly benefits the child and what they really need can enhance parents’ sense of competence and contribute to better parenting dynamics. Also, strengthening reflective functioning and parental competence through interventions like parenting workshops may help reduce harsh discipline, especially for parents with insecure romantic attachment.”
However, the study does have some limitations. Because it was cross-sectional, it cannot prove cause and effect—only associations between variables. Additionally, the study focused on a relatively homogenous and well-educated sample from one region in China, which may not reflect the broader population.
“Harsh discipline carries distinct cultural meanings and manifestations in China (e.g., normalized as ‘tough love’) compared to Western societies,” Wu noted. “Thus, the mechanisms linking attachment to parenting may vary across cultures.”
Looking ahead, the researchers hope to build on this work by examining how parents’ mental health, emotional stability, and family relationships influence child development over time. Their goal is to create practical strategies that can help reduce harsh discipline, promote positive parenting, and support the healthy development of children.
“Our long-term goals for this research are to promote healthy child development and enhance family well-being,” Wu said. “We recognize that adolescent mental health is a significant concern, influenced not only by medical factors but also by parenting practices. To address this, our research focuses on several sequentially related key processes:
1. Individuals’ mental health and emotional stability.
2. Positive family relationships.
3. Optimal family functioning and parenting practices.
4. Healthy child development.”
“While the present study mainly focuses on the third goal (Optimal family functioning and parenting practices), we have also been actively involved in other areas beyond academic research. To promote individual mental health and emotional stability, we have operated a self-media account called ‘心理鸭Psyqualogy’ (Psychological duck), which uses psychological comics/illustrations to convey positive emotions, values, and insights into navigating intimate relationships in a light-hearted artistic way. Here is the link to the account: (https://www.xiaohongshu.com/user/profile/63d76c0600000000260128b9) https://www.xiaohongshu.com/user/profile/63d76c0600000000260128b9.
The study, “(https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/fare.13154) Distinct mechanisms linking romantic attachment dimensions to harsh discipline among Chinese parents of young children,” was authored by Zhou Jin, Minjie Ye, Hui Lu, Lanyue Chen, Wenyue Chen, Hongsheng Yang, Lei Chang, Deborah Baofeng Wang, and Yili Wu.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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