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(https://www.psypost.org/people-with-psychopathic-traits-feel-less-pain-and-assume-others-do-too/) People with psychopathic traits feel less pain—and assume others do too
Mar 22nd 2025, 10:00

A recent study conducted in the Netherlands found that individuals with heightened psychopathic traits exhibited reduced sensitivity to pain caused by electrical stimulation. In turn, those who were less sensitive to their own pain of this kind tended to underestimate the amount of pain others experience. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-87892-x) Scientific Reports.
Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of empathy, manipulative behavior, impulsivity, and shallow emotions. Individuals with psychopathy often display superficial charm and deceptive social skills, allowing them to manipulate others for personal gain. They typically show little to no remorse for their actions and tend to have a high tolerance for risk-taking and thrill-seeking behaviors.
While psychopathy is a recognized disorder, the personality traits central to it can also be found to varying degrees in individuals who do not meet the clinical criteria. These are referred to as psychopathic traits. Individuals with elevated levels of such traits often display increased aggression and a tendency toward interpersonal and sexual violence. Estimates suggest that 15–25% of offenders exhibit heightened psychopathic traits, compared to just 1–4% in the general population.
Study author Dimana V. Atanassova and her colleagues note that a lack of empathy—particularly a diminished sensitivity to others’ pain—is one of the most prominent characteristics of individuals with psychopathic traits. They hypothesized that this may be because individuals high in psychopathic traits are also less sensitive to their own pain. As such, their reduced reaction to personal pain might lead them to assume others experience pain similarly.
The study involved 74 healthy participants, recruited through various channels including social media, in-person outreach, and a dedicated recruitment system. The average participant age was 32 years, and 60% were women.
Participants completed assessments of psychopathic traits (using the Self-Report Psychopathy–Short Form), fear of pain, and empathy (using the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy). They also underwent evaluations of pain threshold and sensitivity to electrical (via electric shocks), pressure, and cold pain. Pressure and electrical pain were assessed using specialized devices, while cold pain was measured by having participants immerse one hand in water at approximately 2 °C. They were asked to indicate when they first felt pain (threshold) and to remove their hand when the pain became unbearable (sensitivity).
Afterward, participants viewed a series of digital images showing right hands and feet in various painful and non-painful everyday scenarios. Their task was to rate how painful each depicted situation appeared to be.
The results showed weak but present associations between sensitivity to different types of pain (cold, electric, and pressure). Participants with higher psychopathic traits tended to report lower fear of pain and lower sensitivity to electrical pain. Specifically, these individuals were less afraid of pain and could tolerate moderate electrical pain more easily. However, there were no significant associations between psychopathic traits and sensitivity or tolerance to cold or pressure pain.
The authors tested statistical models suggesting that heightened psychopathic traits lead to reduced sensitivity to electrical pain and diminished fear of one’s own pain. In turn, this reduced sensitivity and fear were linked to lower empathy for others’ pain. The results supported this proposed chain of relationships.
“We found support for the notion that pain empathy is dependent on own pain experience. Lifestyle traits uniquely predicted lower empathy for pain when using ratings of painful scenarios under an adopted “self” perspective, while the Interpersonal traits demonstrated the opposite pattern. The superordinate psychopathy factor, on the other hand, was associated with reduced empathy for pain through the mediating role of electrical, but not cold or pressure pain insensitivity,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the psychological mechanisms linking psychopathic traits and reduced empathy. However, it should be noted that the study was conducted on a relatively small group of participants. Results on other or larger groups might differ.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-87892-x) Pain sensitivity mediates the relationship between empathy for pain and psychopathic traits,” was authored by Dimana V. Atanassova, Inti A. Brazil, Christiaan E. A. Tomassen, and Joukje M. Oosterman.

(https://www.psypost.org/environmental-features-linked-to-dementia-risk-and-cognitive-decline/) Environmental features linked to dementia risk and cognitive decline
Mar 22nd 2025, 08:00

People living in greener, more walkable neighborhoods may face a lower risk of developing dementia, while those exposed to more air pollution might face a higher risk, according to a large review of existing studies. The findings, published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2024.102630) Ageing Research Reviews, highlight connections between environmental factors and brain health as people age.
Dementia is a growing global concern, affecting nearly 50 million people worldwide. It encompasses a range of disorders that impair memory, thinking, and daily functioning, including Alzheimer’s disease. With an aging population and no available cure, finding ways to prevent or delay dementia has become a pressing goal in public health. While many studies have examined genetic and lifestyle factors, researchers are now turning their attention to environmental influences. Previous studies have hinted that elements such as air quality, traffic noise, and neighborhood design may affect brain health, but results have been inconsistent and often based on subjective reports.
To address this gap, a team of researchers conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis. This means the researchers carefully examined and combined data from many previously published studies. A systematic review aims to gather all relevant evidence on a topic, while a meta-analysis uses statistical techniques to combine the results of those studies and provide a clearer picture of how strong the observed effects are. Only studies that used objective measures—such as satellite data, geographic information systems, and pollution monitoring—were included to ensure the most reliable results.
“My interest in this research topic is because of the urgent global challenge posed by dementia. As dementia affects millions of people and effective treatments remain limited, I was driven to explore modifiable risk factors that could help delay or even prevent cognitive decline,” said study author Linlin Da, a PhD student at the University of Georgia.
“I became particularly interested in investigating the role of the built environment, and how factors such as air pollution, urban design, and the availability of green spaces might influence cognitive health. By utilizing objective measures to assess these environmental exposures, I aimed to address inconsistencies in previous studies and contribute to a clearer understanding of how urban planning and environmental policies could support dementia prevention.”
The researchers searched five major scientific databases and initially identified over 1,800 studies. After a thorough screening process, they selected 54 high-quality studies for their systematic review, 21 of which were also suitable for meta-analysis. The included studies came from around the world, with sample sizes ranging from under 200 to over 63 million individuals, most of whom were aged 60 and older. These studies measured environmental exposures like fine particulate matter in the air (known as PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide, proximity to green spaces, and access to local services. Outcomes included diagnosed dementia or measures of cognitive decline over time.
The researchers found that people exposed to higher levels of air pollution were more likely to develop dementia. Specifically, exposure to fine particulate matter—tiny particles that can be inhaled into the lungs and bloodstream—was associated with a 9% higher risk. Nitrogen dioxide exposure was linked to a 10% higher risk. Living near major roads, often a source of both air pollution and noise, was also tied to a 10% increase in dementia risk.
In contrast, people living in neighborhoods with more green and blue spaces—such as parks, forests, rivers, or lakes—had a 6% lower risk of developing dementia. These areas were also associated with slower cognitive decline. Neighborhoods with more connected street layouts and better walkability also supported cognitive health, possibly by encouraging physical activity and social engagement. Access to food stores, community centers, and healthcare services was similarly beneficial.
While these associations don’t prove direct cause and effect, they are consistent with what scientists already know about how the environment can affect the brain. Air pollution is known to cause inflammation and oxidative stress in the body, which can harm brain tissue and potentially contribute to dementia. On the other hand, green spaces may help protect the brain by reducing stress, encouraging exercise, and improving sleep—all of which are known to support cognitive health.
The study did have some limitations. The researchers found considerable variation across the studies they analyzed. This so-called heterogeneity reflects differences in study designs, populations, and how environmental factors were measured. Some factors, like indoor air quality or socioeconomic status, were not always taken into account, and the methods used to estimate environmental exposure may not perfectly reflect individuals’ real-life experiences.
Still, the authors emphasize that their findings provide strong evidence that environmental features play a meaningful role in brain health. By focusing on studies that used objective measurements and following participants over time, the researchers were able to offer a more reliable picture than many past efforts.
Song hopes the findings will help shape future research and public health efforts. “These numbers show that living in a dementia-friendly environment is important to delay or prevent cognitive decline and the onset of dementia,” said Suhang Song, an assistant professor at the University of Georgia. 
Urban planning decisions—like adding parks, improving air quality, and making neighborhoods more walkable—may offer a promising path toward protecting cognitive health at the population level. Future research may focus on how to better measure these environmental exposures over time, and how they interact with genetics, lifestyle, and other personal risk factors.
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1568163724004483) Objectively measured environmental features and their association with cognition and dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis,” was authored by Linlin Da, Xia Song, Zimu Jia, Nicholas Gary Lamont Myers, Jin Sun, Jingkai Wei, Daniel Jung, Feiyang Li, and Suhang Song.

(https://www.psypost.org/sperm-may-carry-effects-of-childhood-maltreatment-to-future-generations/) Sperm may carry effects of childhood maltreatment to future generations
Mar 22nd 2025, 06:00

Men who experienced abuse or neglect in childhood show distinct changes in the molecular makeup of their sperm, according to new research published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02872-3) Molecular Psychiatry. The study found that men with high levels of childhood maltreatment had altered patterns in small RNA molecules and DNA methylation within their sperm. These biological markers are thought to play an important role in gene regulation and development. The findings offer new clues into how early life stress may impact not only individuals themselves, but potentially their future children through a process known as epigenetic inheritance.
Epigenetic inheritance refers to the passing of biological information from one generation to the next that does not involve changes to the DNA sequence itself. Instead, it involves chemical modifications—such as DNA methylation or changes in small RNA molecules—that can affect how genes are turned on or off. 
The new study was launched to explore whether childhood stress might leave a lasting biological imprint that goes beyond the person directly affected. While previous animal studies had shown that stress experienced by males early in life could change sperm and affect the behavior or health of their offspring, similar evidence in humans was still very limited. The idea that a father’s childhood experiences could be biologically encoded in his sperm and potentially passed on through epigenetic mechanisms intrigued the researchers, especially since sperm contributes half of the genetic and regulatory material at conception.
Their motivation was further strengthened by earlier work showing associations between paternal childhood adversity and structural changes in the brains of newborns. This finding was surprising, as it suggested a link between a father’s early life and the development of a child’s brain. That observation raised a critical question: how could a father’s early psychological stress affect a child he hasn’t yet conceived? The team hypothesized that sperm could be a potential pathway through which early experiences are transmitted.
“We have published a prior study that found associations between paternal childhood maltreatment exposure and neonatal brain white matter. This is striking as the fathers do not have direct influence on the developing fetus during pregnancy. This sparked my interest towards this line of research,” said study author (https://users.utu.fi/jjtuul/) Jetro J. Tuulari, the director of Turku Brain and Mind Center at the University of Turku.
To carry out the study, the researchers used data from the long-running (https://sites.utu.fi/finnbrain/en/) FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. They focused on a group of 55 Finnish men, selecting participants based on how much childhood adversity they reported using a standardized questionnaire called the Trauma and Distress Scale. The researchers then compared two groups: one made up of men with high scores—meaning more childhood maltreatment—and one with low scores.
The researchers analyzed sperm samples from these men to investigate two key molecular features: small non-coding RNAs and DNA methylation. Small non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs and tRNA-derived fragments, help regulate gene activity and are thought to play a role in early embryonic development. DNA methylation is a chemical tag that can silence or activate genes and is also considered an important regulator during development. The team used advanced sequencing techniques to map these features across the sperm cells, ensuring high-quality data while controlling for variables such as age, smoking, alcohol use, and mental health symptoms.
They found notable differences between the two groups. Specifically, 68 small RNAs—including 29 microRNAs and 21 tRNA fragments—were expressed at different levels in the sperm of men with high childhood trauma. One of the strongest findings involved a molecule called miR-34c-5p, which was consistently lower in men with higher adversity scores. This result matched earlier studies that also found reduced levels of this RNA in men who experienced childhood stress. Notably, miR-34c-5p is involved in brain development and is passed from sperm to the embryo during fertilization, potentially influencing how the brain forms.
“The biggest, and positive surprise was that we were able to replicate findings from a prior human study regarding one of the micro-RNA molecules. This is encouraging for future research efforts.”
In addition to small RNAs, the researchers also identified three regions of the genome that showed lower levels of DNA methylation in men who had experienced more childhood adversity. These regions were located near genes that are known to play important roles in the developing brain. One such gene, CRTC1, has been linked to mood disorders and memory. Another, GBX2, is involved in forming the neural plate and other early brain structures. The third gene, WFIKKN1, is primarily involved in muscle development, but its potential effects on offspring remain uncertain.
What makes these findings particularly compelling is that the epigenetic signatures remained significant even after adjusting for a range of lifestyle and health variables. This suggests that the patterns are not simply the result of poor health or lifestyle choices in adulthood, but may instead reflect long-term biological changes stemming from early life experiences.
“Different exposures like environmental toxins and stress exposure can affect the sperm epigenome. Our study found statistically robust associations between childhood maltreatment exposure and sperm epigenome, which implies that early life stress can have lasting impacts on gametes. While inheritance was not assessed in this study, our results provide basis for testing a very important question: can the epigenetic modifications cause heritable changes in humans?”
However, the study also has limitations. Although it includes the largest human sample to date for this kind of sperm analysis, the number of participants is still relatively small. The researchers relied on self-reported data to assess childhood maltreatment, which could be affected by memory or bias. They also examined sperm samples at a single time point, so it’s unclear how stable these epigenetic markers are over time. 
Future research will be needed to follow children conceived by men with and without these epigenetic markers to see if differences emerge in development. The research team hopes to expand their work.
“Looking into to the future, we plan to continue with the data from FinnBrain Birth Cohort study to carry similar analyses in larger sample sizes and see if we find associations to offspring outcomes. I also have high hopes to be able to establish a new cohort study building on this research.”
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02872-3) Exposure to childhood maltreatment is associated with specific epigenetic patterns in sperm,” was authored by Jetro J. Tuulari, Matthieu Bourgery, Jo Iversen, Thomas Gade Koefoed, Annukka Ahonen, Ammar Ahmedani, Eeva-Leena Kataja, Linnea Karlsson, Romain Barrès, Hasse Karlsson, and Noora Kotaja.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-reveals-age-related-differences-in-how-children-with-social-anxiety-handle-errors/) Study reveals age-related differences in how children with social anxiety handle errors
Mar 21st 2025, 18:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14146) Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry has uncovered a link between social anxiety and how children process their mistakes. The researchers found that younger children with more social anxiety struggled to focus their attention after making errors, while older children with social anxiety did not show the same difficulty. These findings suggest that the way social anxiety affects cognitive processes changes as children grow, which could have implications for how clinicians assess and treat anxiety in young people.
Social anxiety is a condition that causes intense fear and worry in social situations. Children and adolescents with social anxiety may be overly self-conscious, fear negative evaluation from others, and avoid social interactions. This can interfere with school, friendships, and other aspects of daily life. Anxiety disorders, including social anxiety, tend to develop early in life, which makes childhood and adolescence important periods for studying how these conditions emerge and change over time.
One area of interest in anxiety research is how people monitor and respond to their own mistakes. In adults, those with social anxiety often show heightened awareness of their errors, a process called error monitoring. However, studies have found that this pattern is not consistent across childhood. While older children and teenagers with anxiety show increased error monitoring, younger children with anxiety seem to have a reduced ability to detect their mistakes. This inconsistency led researchers to investigate another aspect of error-related cognitive processing: what happens after a mistake is made, known as post-error processing.
By studying post-error processing, the researchers aimed to better understand how children with social anxiety adjust their attention after making mistakes and whether this process changes with age. Their findings could help improve how social anxiety is assessed and treated in young people.
“This project was a really nice intersection of my research interests. Understanding how the brain course-corrects after an error and applying that to childhood and adolescence is extremely interesting to me, since the brain is developing so much during this time. Given previous research showing developmental changes in the relationship between error monitoring and anxiety, I was excited to explore similar effects in post-error processing,” said Olivia Stibolt, a PhD student at Florida International University.
The study included 214 children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 17 who were referred to a university-based clinic specializing in child anxiety and related disorders. Of these participants, 108 met the criteria for a social anxiety diagnosis. The researchers measured social anxiety using a questionnaire called the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED), which was completed by both children and their parents.
To assess how children responded to their mistakes, the researchers used a computer-based task called the flanker task. In this task, children were shown a row of arrowheads and had to quickly indicate the direction of the center arrow while ignoring the surrounding arrows. Some trials were more difficult because the surrounding arrows pointed in the opposite direction of the center arrow. This task is commonly used to study attention and cognitive control.
The researchers focused on what happened immediately after the children made a mistake. Instead of relying on simple measures like reaction time or accuracy, they used a mathematical model called the Shrinking Spotlight Drift-Diffusion Model (SSP-DDM). This model allowed them to measure how well children focused their attention after making errors, providing a more detailed look at post-error processing than traditional methods.
The results showed a significant difference in how younger and older children with social anxiety processed their mistakes. Younger children with higher social anxiety had a harder time refocusing their attention after making an error. But this pattern changed gradually with age. At around 11 to 13 years old, the relationship between social anxiety and post-error attention difficulties seemed to disappear.
In younger children, social anxiety was linked to reduced attentional focus after errors, but by adolescence, this effect was no longer present. This suggests that as children grow and develop better cognitive control, social anxiety may no longer interfere with their ability to refocus after making mistakes.
“Among those with more social anxiety symptoms, only younger children showed less ability to focus attention after errors, while older children did not show this deficit,” Stibolt told PsyPost. “In combination with the changes in error monitoring across development that were found by previous studies, our results show that multiple stages of cognitive control (error monitoring and post-error processing) are influenced by age. These age-based differences in post-error processing highlight the importance in taking age into consideration for assessments and treatments for pediatric social anxiety.”
“The results that we found using computational modeling were not able to be seen when we analyzed more traditional behavioral indices of post-error processing, highlighting the utility of computational modeling,” Stibolt noted.
The researchers also examined whether children with social anxiety showed differences in their overall approach to decision-making, such as being more cautious in their responses. However, they found that response caution was primarily related to age, with younger children being more cautious overall, regardless of their anxiety levels.
The study provides new evidence that social anxiety affects how children process their mistakes, but that this effect changes with age. However, there are some limitations. First, because the study was cross-sectional—meaning it only looked at children at a single point in time—it cannot determine whether these changes in post-error processing are directly caused by age or whether other factors are involved. Future research should follow children over time to track how their error-processing abilities change as they grow.
Additionally, the study only examined post-error processing in a structured laboratory setting. In real-world situations, children with social anxiety may react to mistakes differently, especially in socially demanding environments. Future research could explore how social anxiety affects post-error processing in different contexts, such as during interactions with peers.
“Our long-term goals are to understand how the brain is changing during childhood and adolescence and to apply that to treatments for social anxiety,” Stibolt said.
The study, “(https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.14146) Exploring the role of post-error processing in social anxiety across age,” was authored by Olivia A. Stibolt, Fabian A. Soto, Jeremy W. Pettit, Yasmin Rey, and George A. Buzzell.

(https://www.psypost.org/the-lifelong-impact-of-early-touch/) The lifelong impact of early touch
Mar 21st 2025, 14:00

In the 1950s, the American psychologist (https://nationalmedals.org/laureate/harry-f-harlow/) Harry Harlow provided a stark (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1960-02805-001) demonstration of the importance of a mother’s touch. He famously – (https://www.americanscientist.org/article/deconstructing-harry) and controversially – showed that rhesus monkeys would rather cling to a surrogate “mother” made of soft cloth than one made of metal wire that provided milk. A loving touch seemed to be more important than food, Harlow concluded.
Today, the importance of touch has become firmly embedded in infant care. For example, (https://www.unicef.org.uk/babyfriendly/baby-friendly-resources/implementing-standards-resources/skin-to-skin-contact/) UNICEF and the (https://www.nhs.uk/start-for-life/baby/baby-basics/caring-for-your-baby/skin-to-skin-contact-with-your-newborn/) NHS recommend skin-to-skin contact between a parent and newborn. This involves placing a newborn on a parent’s bare chest, both of them covered in a warm blanket, for at least an hour after birth or until after the first feed.
In fact, feeling the power of touch begins long before a baby is even born. Touch is the first sense to develop. Just (https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-88-470-5373-1) eight weeks after conception, a foetus already responds to the sensation of touch in the womb – and it is crucial for people of any age.
By (https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0013199) 14 weeks, twins have been observed on ultrasound sucking on each other’s fingers and exploring each other’s faces. And frame-by-frame analyses of ultrasound have shown that, by (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163638316302405?casa_token=ejFjZYXCkwQAAAAA:apTuO_ItpJxPBzX08HaMY8E9tpdGSxUBom6PyIQEO6AYTlIIW4rx7fC0_r2RYFAWBB7q4K1ssA) 20 weeks, foetuses respond to mothers touching their bellies.
The benefits of parental touch become clear at birth. One (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-01841-8) review of 52 studies involving over 4,000 newborns found that touch interventions – such as skin-to-skin contact and baby massage – was associated with better newborn health, including better regulation of temperature, breathing and heart rate. The review also found that touch was more beneficial when it came from a parent compared to medical staff.
Cuddle up, because there are other benefits of skin-to-skin contact. When a parent holds their baby in skin-to-skin contact after birth, it helps to calm the newborn and stimulates an interest in feeding. In the longer-term, daily skin-to-skin contact with infants (https://www.unicef.org.uk/babyfriendly/news-and-research/baby-friendly-research/research-supporting-breastfeeding/skin-to-skin-contact/) improves sleep patterns and pain tolerance, supports healthy weight gain and continued breastfeeding and strengthens brain development.
These benefits are also experienced by infants born prematurely. For example, one (https://www.cochrane.org/CD002771/NEONATAL_kangaroo-mother-care-reduce-morbidity-and-mortality-low-birthweight-infants) review of kangaroo care – skin-to-skin contact for premature or low birth-weight infants – found that it reduced the risk of death, infection and low body temperature, and improved weight gain and rates of breastfeeding.
In both healthy and premature infants, skin-to-skin contact also triggers the release of the hormone (https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7485314/) oxytocin – the so-called (https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/oxytocin-the-love-hormone) “love hormone” – which encourages bonding between the parent and infant. Skin-to-skin contact also lowers levels of the hormone (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35850037/) cortisol, which helps newborns to regulate levels of stress.
In fact, the benefits of skin-to-skin contact are not exclusively experienced by the newborn. Studies have found that daily skin-to-skin contact with their babies can reduce symptoms of postpartum stress, depression and anxiety in (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35063800/) mothers. And while most studies have focused on mothers, skin-to-skin contact also seems to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety in (https://read.qxmd.com/read/30676465/effects-of-paternal-skin-to-skin-contact-in-newborns-and-fathers-after-cesarean-delivery?gs=0&token=m8oQgqjxpQDP83ZS1f9SM58I31f%2B9KFV8xoqkoWIrIltZ4LUjLezkE8xHei4vqrmjFSYIuXtD7N3B83IXEaBQKPOX2r8O8UtKMY3jG4C%2FY7nPkr7MV3TIiK9OIDN4fqxc%2FFw353AAqPE888AHwpZXdf5yu8DrFR%2FP2NyQTIXyPI6haXZcw%2BF8QBYFD7NZxN%2B1FlZ71vPkJ6P29BfukXseLrTHuo7l2QqxTwpcBvHk10Ehx0%2BXFE8r1dvec3O8uNOLBtfeCkNyO6HhV2cgTyl7OcDfeA3zIiFxcxeuKQBLUnPBXJH5E6eP5fPGdLEB6UBOawGUxyO1U6YUDmzCJ8qGmDBJ5W1Pu0gEwXQgBgBBLV7CPYB%2BEiNfUixYw09CybrxLjXjI1NBEjkV3wNQAuOpw%3D%3D) fathers.
While most of this research has focused the short-term outcomes of touch, scientists are also following infants over time to see what impact early touch has on long-term outcomes. For example, (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322313007646?casa_token=E2K1YUm4sBwAAAAA:2SrG6HrAugBwthQa2pdrhf6FiJMmSW9yfBhLbsXhLuU4zXhWUOP_hjaWIIFKHelOuTAHqsFMhg) one study found that premature babies who received at least one hour of kangaroo care for two weeks had better mother-child interactions, sleep and brain development when they were ten years old.
Another group of researchers followed infants and their mothers for a period of nine years. When they were only (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163638311001445?casa_token=dveFHb5RqQIAAAAA:vub1iw7uk9vFqIIrhfnxJQnEns3Gmi77ZpPh6_79-QaRnCGVw3img7kMswmtpUB2oNtzhYkfUA) one-month-old, infants who had experienced skin-to-skin contact with their mothers already showed better emotional adjustment and attachment than infants who had no skin-to-skin contact.
(https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/sode.12307?casa_token=1typ_BA15coAAAAA%3Afd-yW7jV1H-zK4GNgAH4Krknglrn_-AkM4-wsVa81325JHb6cMUAfpO0SAxrQII9sWU4v6XWi8AdtC8) Nine years later, these children were also more willing and able to engage in emotive conversations with their mothers.
Some of the effects of touch are more difficult to quantify. In the 1970s, for example, the psychiatrist Donald Winnicott (https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yrALEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT6&ots=hsTdvMIPXQ&sig=0nD_mJfW0vtaQ_W7uuOpDEDIYHM&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false) described how a mother’s touch helps infants and young children to experience the body as “the place where one securely lives”. This idea seems to be supported by ethnographic records and anthropological studies of communities where infants are in close contact with a caregiver.
For instance, in many communities – such as the Netsilik, !Kung, and Balinese – infants are pressed skin-to-skin with their mothers for much of the day. This means that infants are more likely to have their needs met quickly – being comforted when they cry or fed when they suckle – while also helping them develop a (https://www.opgs.org/_site/data/files/files/y12into13/88BABDC7E3A38681FA17DAEBEF0AF862.pdf) sensitivity to touch. These forms of “(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10371397.2010.485552?casa_token=Bc5nII3hFIMAAAAA:NOBwp7nqnSLIEDnGDRKdNtrPF0CVxMJwVp_uXIR1fU4Awbny0Z0LWIxVV9hT_PHNiSVMwmT0MVvh) skinship” also help parents and their infants to develop deeper bonds through touch.
While this research shows the benefits of touch in infancy, what about childhood? (https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=jsbGBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=field+touch&ots=PXx6GygGcZ&sig=ublm4Cog1CeHMr4oP7AN80WiDok#v=onepage&q=field%20touch&f=false) Studies of young children and adolescents have shown that touch – particularly caring touch like hugging from a parent or other caregivers, such as (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004430.2010.497207?casa_token=UDEzqgZHStsAAAAA:xlh0dosQwbeBnGjT0Y8G0w_Dg-aYhwu1E_5hPhGnIqQ49nZl97JwP3REjLEvwcvHUqEkTylcRsf4GA) teachers – can support psychological development and wellbeing. For instance, touch can help children develop a sense of emotional security, belonging and feelings of support, especially in stressful situations.
The anthropologist Marjorie Goodwin has (https://campanthropology.org/2019/04/08/goodwin-and-cekaite-embodied-family-choreography/) described how “haptic rituals” – such as hugs between a parent and their child over the course of a day – can help the child feel loved and cared for.
Regularly experiencing caring touch can also help children to develop their social (https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LksrDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA73&dq=Goodwin+haptic+sociability&ots=NTpLcSku8f&sig=nmZpqkLK8hRddxMF5wLjWkrFlx4#v=onepage&q&f=false) interaction skills, including empathy toward others. Caring touch also reduces (https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7rWsQK9ek_EC&oi=fnd&pg=PA117&dq=aggressive+adolescents+massage+therapy&ots=mROdGFNv14&sig=rR8jI2ojojm445bgqA2py9EpFxg#v=onepage&q=aggressive%20adolescents%20massage%20therapy&f=false) aggressive behaviour in adolescence.
Unfortunately, even today, many parents hold on to old fashioned ideas – popularised by psychologists like (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1928-02003-000) John Watson – that they should avoid caring touch with their children, out of fear that hugging or cuddling will cause their children to become weak willed. The scientific evidence doesn’t support such ideas, so go hug your kids.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/skin-to-skin-contact-is-good-for-your-baby-and-you-and-not-just-straight-after-birth-248260) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/brain-science-amygdala-activity-before-trauma-can-predict-ptsd-risk-study-finds/) Brain science: Amygdala activity before trauma can predict PTSD risk, study finds
Mar 21st 2025, 12:00

A new study published in (https://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(25)00993-X/fulltext) Biological Psychiatry suggests that brain activity in specific regions before experiencing a traumatic event may help predict whether an individual will develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Researchers found that police recruits who showed greater activation in a part of the amygdala—a brain region involved in processing fear—while anticipating a threat were more likely to develop PTSD symptoms after later experiencing trauma.
PTSD is a mental health condition that can develop after a person experiences or witnesses a traumatic event. While many people recover from trauma over time, some continue to experience distressing symptoms long after the event has passed. PTSD can cause intense flashbacks, nightmares, and intrusive memories that make it feel as though the trauma is happening all over again. People with PTSD may also avoid reminders of the event, struggle with emotional numbness, or experience heightened anxiety and irritability. These symptoms can interfere with daily life, relationships, and work, making PTSD a debilitating condition for those affected.
Not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD, and researchers have long sought to understand why some individuals are more vulnerable than others. “In The Netherlands, around 80% of individuals experience something traumatic and around 10% of those individuals develop PTSD symptoms. It is therefore an extreme relevant and timely topic,” said study author (https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/staffmembers/linda-de-voogd#tab-1) Lycia D. de Voogd, an assistant professor at Leiden University.
The brain plays a key role in how people respond to fear and stress, and differences in brain function may help explain variations in PTSD risk. One brain region of particular interest is the amygdala, which is responsible for detecting threats and triggering emotional responses. Studies have shown that people with PTSD often have heightened activity in the amygdala, but it has been unclear whether this overactivity is a result of trauma or a pre-existing vulnerability.
The motivation behind this study was to determine whether differences in brain function before trauma exposure could predict who would later develop PTSD symptoms. Studying PTSD risk is challenging because researchers typically cannot measure brain activity before a traumatic event occurs. To address this, a team of researchers partnered with the Dutch National Police to conduct a large-scale study called (https://www.epanlab.nl/research/main-projects/police-in-action/) Police in Action.
Police officers frequently experience traumatic situations, making them a valuable group for studying PTSD risk. The study examined recruits at the very beginning of their training, before they were exposed to real-world policing situations. By following these recruits over time, the researchers aimed to identify differences in brain activity that might predict who would later develop PTSD symptoms.
The study followed 221 police recruits, tracking their brain activity and PTSD symptoms over a period of about 18 months. At the start of their training, before they had encountered trauma, the recruits underwent a brain scan while completing a task designed to simulate high-stress decision-making. In this task, they watched an avatar in a virtual parking lot. Sometimes, the avatar pulled out a gun, and the recruit had to quickly decide whether to shoot. Other times, the avatar pulled out a harmless object, such as a mobile phone, and the correct choice was not to shoot. If the recruit made the wrong decision—such as shooting an unarmed person—they received an electric shock to their finger.
This task was designed to mimic the split-second decisions police officers must make in the field. Importantly, the brain scan allowed researchers to measure how different parts of the brain responded before the recruits had to act—specifically, while they were anticipating a possible threat.
After approximately 18 months, the researchers followed up with the recruits to assess whether they had experienced traumatic events on duty and whether they had developed PTSD symptoms. This allowed the team to compare brain activity before trauma with PTSD symptoms that developed later.
The study revealed that police recruits who showed higher activity in the dorsal part of the amygdala while anticipating a threat were more likely to develop PTSD symptoms after experiencing trauma. This suggests that heightened sensitivity to potential threats—even before an event occurs—may indicate a greater risk for PTSD.
On the other hand, after experiencing trauma, recruits who had more activation in the lateral part of the amygdala when responding to distressing stimuli seemed to have greater difficulty regulating their emotional responses. This suggests that while some patterns of brain activity may predict PTSD risk before trauma occurs, other changes may be a result of trauma exposure itself.
In addition to amygdala activity, the study found that recruits who later developed PTSD symptoms showed stronger connections between the amygdala and a brain region called the precuneus. The precuneus is involved in self-awareness, memory, and attention, and has been increasingly linked to PTSD risk. This suggests that the way the brain integrates external threats with personal experiences may play a role in how individuals process trauma.
“The main finding is that amygdala activity during threat anticipation predicts the later development of PTSD symptoms after trauma,” de Voogd told PsyPost. “This means that some of us are more sensitive to developing symptoms than others following a traumatic experience.”
The study provides some of the clearest evidence yet that differences in brain activity before a traumatic event can help predict who will later develop PTSD symptoms. If these findings are confirmed in future research, they could pave the way for early identification of individuals at higher risk for PTSD, potentially leading to targeted interventions before symptoms develop.
One possibility is that training programs could be developed to help individuals regulate their amygdala activity, reducing their vulnerability to PTSD. Some studies have already suggested that techniques such as neurofeedback, in which individuals learn to control their own brain activity in real time, may help with emotional regulation. If it becomes possible to “train” the brain to be less reactive to anticipated threats, this could help people cope with trauma more effectively.
However, the study also has limitations. While the findings are based on a relatively large group of police recruits, it is unclear whether the same patterns of brain activity would predict PTSD in the general population or in people exposed to different types of trauma. Additionally, although the study shows a link between amygdala activity and PTSD symptoms, it does not establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship. Further research is needed to confirm these results and explore how brain activity interacts with other factors, such as genetics and personal history.
The research team is now investigating whether training the brain’s defensive systems can help reduce the likelihood of PTSD. By better understanding the neural mechanisms underlying PTSD risk, scientists hope to develop more effective ways to protect individuals from the long-term effects of trauma.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.02.894) Amygdala hyperactivity in PTSD: disentangling predisposing from consequential factors in a prospective longitudinal design,” was authored by Lycia D. de Voogd, Mahur M. Hashemi, Wei Zhang, Reinoud Kaldewaij, Saskia B.J. Koch, Vanessa A. van Ast, Floris Klumpers, and Karin Roelofs.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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