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(https://www.psypost.org/incels-misperceive-societal-views-overestimating-blame-and-underestimating-sympathy/) Incels misperceive societal views, overestimating blame and underestimating sympathy
Mar 5th 2025, 08:00

Incels significantly overestimate how much society blames them for their problems and underestimate the level of sympathy from others, according to new research published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113041) Personality & Individual Differences.
Involuntary celibates, or “incels,” represent an online subculture of men who define themselves by their perceived inability to form sexual or romantic relationships. The community is characterized by (https://www.psypost.org/incels-exhibit-reduced-psychological-well-being-and-a-greater-tendency-for-interpersonal-victimhood-study-finds/) self-loathing, depression, and often (https://www.psypost.org/incel-forums-reveal-persistent-widespread-misogyny-regardless-of-user-engagement/) misogynistic attitudes.
“Incels’ victimhood mindset is encapsulated by their ‘(https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Blackpill) black-pill’ philosophy, a belief that there is nothing they can do to improve their romantic prospects,” write study authors William Costello and Andrew G. Thomas.
Previous research has documented various cognitive distortions among incels, such as overestimating the importance of physical appearance in female mate preferences while underestimating traits like kindness and humor. However, no study has formally investigated how incels perceive society’s views of them compared to what society actually thinks.
The researchers designed this study to address three key questions: what do people actually think about incels, how accurate are incels in perceiving these societal views, and how do incels’ self-perceptions differ from how society sees them?
Participants were recruited through snowball sampling on social media platforms, including X (formerly Twitter) and the Incels.co forum. The final sample consisted of 135 self-identified male incels (average age 27.9 years) and 449 non-incels (332 men with an average age of 32.5 years and 117 women with an average age of 30.6 years).
After providing demographic information, incel participants rated how they believed society views them, while non-incels rated their own opinions about incels using seven items on a 5-point Likert scale. These items assessed perceptions of blame, sympathy, desire for incels’ romantic success from society and other incels, danger to society, danger to themselves, and misogyny. Data were aggregated to create a composite “animosity score” reflecting overall negative perceptions.  The researchers also measured individual differences including loneliness, interpersonal victimhood, and feminist identification.
The study revealed three key findings. First, societal views of incels were broadly sympathetic or neutral on most measures. Second, incels significantly overestimated how much society blames them for their problems and underestimated the level of sympathy from others. Third, both incels and non-incels showed general agreement about the dangers incels pose to themselves and society and the extent to which incels harbor misogynistic attitudes toward women.
Interestingly, loneliness played a limited role in predicting these misperceptions, though it was associated with incels’ perceptions of societal blame. Meanwhile, tendencies for interpersonal victimhood did not strongly predict incels’ misperceptions.
A notable finding was the role of feminist identification in shaping attitudes toward incels. Higher feminist identification among non-incels was associated with decreased sympathy and support for incels’ romantic success, increased blame attribution, and higher overall animosity toward incels. This effect was particularly pronounced among women with stronger feminist identification.
The researchers suggest that while incels may overestimate general societal hostility, their perceptions of animosity from feminist subgroups appear more accurate. Both incels and non-incels, regardless of feminist identification, agreed that incels pose a danger to themselves, highlighting a shared concern about self-harm risks within the incel community.
The authors acknowledge that their recruitment strategy, which relied on snowball sampling through social media platforms, may have introduced bias by including individuals who are more familiar with incels or have stronger opinions about them compared to the general population.
Overall, these findings suggest that incels’ worldview—that society universally hates them—is largely inaccurate, which offers optimism for potential interventions and more effective approaches to help this vulnerable group.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113041) Seeing through the black-pill: Incels are wrong about what people think of them,” was authored by William Costello and Andrew G. Thomas.

(https://www.psypost.org/gratitude-and-forgiveness-appear-to-soften-loneliness-blow-to-marriage-satisfaction/) Gratitude and forgiveness appear to soften loneliness’ blow to marriage satisfaction
Mar 5th 2025, 06:00

Feelings of loneliness can negatively impact a marriage, but a recent study suggests that certain positive traits can help protect the relationship from these harmful effects. Researchers discovered that when spouses are grateful and forgiving, the negative impact of loneliness on their marital relationship weakens. However, these qualities did not seem to lessen the negative effects of loneliness on the couple’s sexual relationship. The findings were published in the(https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2467416)  Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy.
Previous studies have shown that feeling lonely, even within a marriage, can harm both the overall relationship and the sexual connection between partners. Loneliness is not just about being physically alone; it is a subjective feeling of isolation, even when surrounded by others. This feeling has been linked to poorer mental and physical health, and it can also create problems in romantic relationships.
While being in a committed relationship often reduces loneliness, it is still possible to experience these feelings within a marriage. The research team was interested in exploring whether gratitude and forgiveness, known to have positive effects in relationships, could lessen the negative influence of loneliness on marital well-being. They wanted to see if these qualities could help couples maintain a strong relationship, even when one or both partners felt lonely.
(https://www.chelomleavitt.com/) Chelom Leavitt ((https://www.instagram.com/drchelomleavitt/) @drchelomleavitt), an associate professor at Brigham Young University and lead author of the new study, was inspired to investigate this after the outbreak of COVID-19. “It began in the pandemic when I was more attuned to people’s comments about being lonely,” she explained. “I wrote a blog on it, and it went viral. I thought, ‘This has touched a nerve, and we need to explore this.’”
The researchers used data from a large, ongoing study called CREATE, which collects information from newly married couples across the United States. This study includes a representative sample of couples who were recently married. For this specific research, the team analyzed data from 1,614 heterosexual couples who had participated. The couples had completed questionnaires as part of the larger study. The researchers focused on data collected at one point in time, specifically from the fourth wave of data collection, which occurred between June 2019 and February 2020.
In the questionnaires, couples answered questions about their feelings of loneliness, their ability to forgive their partner, how often they expressed gratitude towards their partner, their overall satisfaction with their relationship, and the harmony in their sexual relationship.
The study revealed that loneliness was generally linked to lower relationship satisfaction and sexual harmony for both husbands and wives. This means that when either spouse felt lonely, both their own and their partner’s satisfaction with the relationship tended to be lower.
However, the researchers found that gratitude and forgiveness did indeed play a role in weakening the negative impact of loneliness on relationship satisfaction. When wives reported higher levels of forgiveness and gratitude, the negative link between their loneliness and their own relationship satisfaction was less strong. The same was true for husbands: their gratitude and forgiveness lessened the negative effect of their loneliness on their own relationship satisfaction.
Interestingly, the husband’s forgiveness also had a small positive impact on the wife’s relationship satisfaction when he was lonely. This suggests that a husband’s forgiving attitude can benefit his wife’s relationship satisfaction, even when he is feeling lonely.
“Loneliness is real and something that a lot of us deal with,” Leavitt told PsyPost. “However, we don’t have to just be victims of it. We can take a proactive stance and invest in our well-being by practicing a little more gratitude and forgiveness with ourselves and our partners. I am a big mindfulness researcher, and I love the idea that how we think about our life circumstances is quite powerful.”
However, the study found no evidence that gratitude or forgiveness lessened the negative impact of loneliness on sexual harmony. Even when spouses were grateful and forgiving, loneliness still seemed to negatively affect their sexual relationship. This suggests that while gratitude and forgiveness can protect the overall marital relationship from the damaging effects of loneliness, they might not be enough to safeguard the sexual aspect of the relationship.
“I was disappointed but also understood that being forgiving and grateful didn’t improve the sexual relationship,” Leavitt said. “However, it’s quite understandable. Sex is a powerful interaction, and being forgiving and grateful may not be enough to overcome the lonely feelings we experience. That may require some additional work through therapy and intimate conversation between partners.”
As with all research, there are a few limitations to consider. The sample consisted of young, newly married heterosexual couples, which might limit how broadly the findings can be applied to other groups, such as older couples, same-sex couples, or unmarried couples. Because the couples were early in their marriages, they might have been experiencing fewer serious relationship problems compared to couples married for longer. Additionally, the study looked at data from one point in time, so it cannot show cause and effect.
“Our sample was pretty happy despite loneliness,” Leavitt noted. “These findings may not hold true in more serious situations. So always seek help if you feel that you need more support. We are doing a follow-up study looking at how mindfulness and sexual mindfulness may also help buffer this negative pattern between loneliness and sexual and relational well-being.”
“Obstacles and conflict in our lives are often an opportunity for us to examine deeper meanings and elements of ourselves and our partners,” she added. “Conflict is an opportunity for deeper intimacy.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2467416) Loneliness Within a Romantic Relationship: Do Gratitude and Forgiveness Moderate Between Loneliness and Relational and Sexual Well-Being?,” was authored by Chelom E. Leavitt, Amber A. Price, Naomi F. Inman, McKayla Lee, AnnMarie Sandridge, Zoie Harrison, Alyssa L. Brown, Jeremy B. Yorgason, and Erin K. Holmes.

(https://www.psypost.org/neuroscience-brain-differences-in-childhood-predict-substance-use-in-later-life-study-finds/) Brain differences in childhood predict substance use in later life, study finds
Mar 4th 2025, 16:00

A recent study published in (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2828520) JAMA Network Open has found that subtle differences in brain structure during late childhood are linked to whether young people start using substances like alcohol, nicotine, or cannabis in their early teens. Children who initiated substance use before the age of 15 tended to have slightly larger overall brain volumes and a thinner prefrontal cortex compared to their peers who did not use substances. Importantly, these brain characteristics were often detectable even before the young people had ever tried substances, suggesting they could be pre-existing factors that increase the likelihood of early substance use.
The widespread use of psychoactive substances and the serious problems that can arise from it, such as addiction and health issues, are a major concern for public health around the world. While the most severe consequences of substance use often become apparent in late adolescence or young adulthood, the path towards these problems frequently begins much earlier. It is well-established that starting to use substances at a young age is a strong predictor of developing substance use problems later in life. Therefore, understanding what puts some young people at risk of starting substance use early is a critical area of research.
Previous studies using brain imaging have shown that people with substance use problems often have differences in their brain structure compared to those without such problems. These differences have been observed as reductions in the amount of gray matter in the brain, a thinning of the outer layer of the brain called the cortex, and less integrity in the brain’s white matter, which is responsible for communication between brain regions. 
While these brain changes are often seen across the entire brain, some areas, like the hippocampus (important for memory) and the prefrontal cortex (involved in decision-making and self-control), seem to be particularly affected. However, much of this previous research has looked at brain structure in people who already have substance use problems. This makes it difficult to determine whether these brain differences are a result of substance use itself, or if they were present beforehand.
Some research has started to suggest that these brain differences may not just be caused by substance use, but could also be pre-existing risk factors. For example, studies following children over time have found that children with smaller brain volumes and a thinner prefrontal cortex are more likely to start using alcohol later in adolescence. Furthermore, studies of families have shown that even children who do not drink heavily, but have siblings or parents with alcohol problems, also tend to have similar brain structure differences. 
These findings suggest that brain structure might play a role in making some individuals more susceptible to substance use, possibly due to a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental influences. This idea aligns with broader theories about addiction, which propose that brain biology can be both a cause and a consequence of substance use. Developmental theories also highlight that the way the brain develops during adolescence, with an imbalance between emotional drive and cognitive control, might contribute to a greater vulnerability to substance use during this period.
To explore this further, researchers analyzed data from the (https://abcdstudy.org/) Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. This large, ongoing study is following the development of over ten thousand children across the United States from childhood into young adulthood. The researchers wanted to see if differences in brain structure, measured when the children were around 9 or 10 years old and had not yet started using substances, could predict whether they would begin using substances in the following years. Specifically, they wanted to know if brain variations present in late childhood were associated with starting to use substances before the age of 15.
“A lot of existing research on brain structure associations with substance involvement has focused on the effect of substance use on the brain, typically in the context of substance use disorders, rather than the brain on substance use,” explained study author Alex P. Miller, an assistant professor of psychiatry at Indiana University School of Medicine, who conducted the research while a postdoctoral fellow at Washington University School of Medicine working with Arpana Agrawal and Ryan Bogdan.
“This study provided the opportunity to investigate this latter possibility and examine whether pre-existing brain structure differences in late childhood were associated with early substance use initiation in early adolescence in a large sample well-designed to examine this question.”
The researchers used data from nearly 10,000 children participating in the ABCD study. These children were initially between 9 and 11 years old when they joined the study. As part of the ABCD study, the children underwent brain scans using magnetic resonance imaging, a technique that provides detailed pictures of the brain’s structure. These scans were performed at the beginning of the study. The children and their parents also participated in regular interviews, both in person and over the phone, over the next three years. During these interviews, they were asked whether they had ever used alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, or other illicit substances.
The researchers defined “substance use initiation” as having used any of these substances at any point during the three-year follow-up period. They focused on early initiation, specifically before the age of 15. They considered the use of alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis separately, as well as any substance use in general. It is important to note that they excluded instances of alcohol or nicotine use that were solely within religious ceremonies, focusing on use in other contexts. Children who reported using any substance during this period were categorized as “initiators,” while those who reported no substance use were considered “non-initiators.”
>From the brain scans, the researchers measured a wide range of brain structure features. These included overall measures like the total volume of the whole brain, the volume of the cortex, the volume of subcortical gray matter, the total surface area of the cortex, and the average thickness of the cortex. They also measured the volumes of specific subcortical structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and caudate. Furthermore, they analyzed the volume, thickness, surface area, and depth of folds in 34 different regions of the cortex in both hemispheres of the brain. In total, they examined nearly 300 different brain structure measurements.
To analyze the data, the researchers used statistical methods to compare the brain measurements of children who initiated substance use with those who did not. They took into account factors that could influence brain development and substance use, such as the child’s age, sex, stage of puberty, whether they were a twin or sibling in the study, and the type of magnetic resonance imaging scanner used for their brain scan. By controlling for these factors, the researchers could isolate the relationship between brain structure and substance use initiation more clearly.
The study’s findings revealed several significant associations between brain structure and early substance use initiation. Children who went on to initiate substance use before age 15 showed, on average, larger overall brain volumes, including larger total brain volume, cortical volume, subcortical volume, and cortical surface area. Regionally, they found that those who initiated substance use had a thinner cortex in a specific area of the prefrontal cortex, called the right rostral middle frontal gyrus. However, in other regions of the brain, specifically in the temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes, they observed a thicker cortex in the substance-using group.
When they looked at specific substances, they found that alcohol use initiation largely mirrored the findings for any substance use, which is not surprising given that alcohol was the most commonly used substance in this age group. They found similar associations between larger brain volumes and thinner prefrontal cortex with alcohol initiation. Nicotine and cannabis use initiation showed some unique associations with brain structure as well, but these were less consistent and did not hold up to the strictest statistical tests applied in the study.
“The findings of the study suggest that early adolescent substance use is associated with differences in brain structure measured in late childhood and that some of this brain structure variability precedes initiation,” Miller told PsyPost. “Variability in brain structure may partially reflect predispositional risk for initiating substance use earlier in life which is, in turn, associated with greater risk of developing a substance use disorder later in life.”
“The fact that there are associations between brain structure and early substance use, some of which preceded substance exposure, to me, was not as surprising as the particular pattern of results. Namely, that substance use initiation was associated with larger global brain metrics, while later stages of substance involvement (substance use disorders) are typically associated with smaller global brain metrics.” 
“Similarly, thinner prefrontal cortex being associated with early substance use initiation was largely consistent with our hypotheses and prior research; however, that this was paired with thicker cortical regions elsewhere was unexpected and suggests a possible pattern of differential brain development that will be interesting to follow up on in future studies.”
To ensure their findings were robust, the researchers conducted additional analyses. They repeated their analyses, excluding children who had already used substances before the baseline brain scan, to focus on brain features present before substance use began. The results remained largely consistent, suggesting that the observed brain structure differences were indeed present before substance use began for most of these children. They also considered the potential influence of prenatal substance exposure but found that this did not change their main findings.
But as with all research, there are some caveats. “Recent research suggests that many brain-behavior associations may be characterized by relatively small effects,” Miller noted. “Given the small effect sizes we are seeing and the level of exposure studied being the very earliest forms of substance involvement, the results of our study are not clinically meaningful or predictive of individual outcomes for substance use disorder treatment.” 
“However, these findings do inform, and to some extent, challenge current theoretical models of addiction. As researchers continue to follow participants of the ABCD Study over time, the hope is that we will continue to learn more about how brain structure and brain activity influences and is influenced by substance use in ways that will someday improve precision healthcare approaches.”
“We are currently examining the degree to which these brain structure differences related to early substance use initiation might themselves be influenced by differences in both environmental and genetic factors as well as to what extent brain structure correlates of early substance use initiation might overlap with those related to impulsive personality traits,” Miller added.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.52027) Neuroanatomical Variability and Substance Use Initiation in Late Childhood and Early Adolescence,” was authored by Alex P. Miller, David A. A. Baranger, Sarah E. Paul, Hugh Garavan, Scott Mackey, Susan F. Tapert, Kimberly H. LeBlanc, Arpana Agrawal, and Ryan Bogdan.

(https://www.psypost.org/sleep-disruption-interferes-with-consolidation-of-fear-memories-study-finds/) Sleep disruption interferes with consolidation of fear memories, study finds
Mar 4th 2025, 14:00

A study on mice found that a six-hour sleep disruption interfered with the consolidation of fear memories, making them weaker. This disruption also increased the levels of mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a molecule implicated in changes to the brain region responsible for regulating fear responses. The paper was published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-01978-0) Neuropsychopharmacology.
Psychological trauma has a profound impact on sleep, often leading to persistent disturbances that affect overall well-being. Individuals who have experienced trauma frequently struggle with insomnia, as heightened stress and hyperarousal make it difficult to relax and fall asleep. Even when they do manage to sleep, many trauma survivors experience nightmares or night terrors, causing frequent awakenings and preventing deep, restorative rest.
This disrupted sleep pattern contributes to emotional instability, increasing the risk of anxiety and depression while exacerbating trauma symptoms. In particular, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is closely linked to chronic sleep problems, with many affected individuals reporting vivid nightmares that replay distressing events.
However, some studies suggest that sleep might also play a role in consolidating memories of traumatic events, potentially intensifying trauma symptoms. In contrast, if a person is prevented from sleeping for some time after a traumatic experience, they may have difficulty recalling certain details of the event. Studies on mice that underwent fear conditioning (i.e., learned to fear a previously harmless stimulus) showed that they had weaker recall of the learned fear when their sleep was disrupted within five hours after the event.
Study author Allison R. Foilb and her colleagues sought to examine the effects of a delayed, next-day sleep disruption on the expression of learned fear in mice. They also investigated how this disruption affected the expression of mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a molecule involved in neuroplasticity—the brain’s ability to form new connections between neurons—in regions associated with the development, expression, and extinction of fear-related behaviors.
The study was conducted on adult male and female C57BL/6 mice, aged six to eight weeks. C57BL/6 mice are a widely used laboratory strain known for their black fur, strong immune response, and genetic stability. The mice had free access to food and water and were housed in individual Plexiglas cages in a temperature-controlled vivarium.
To condition the mice to fear a specific stimulus, the researchers paired a particular sound with an electric shock. Once the mice learned to associate the sound with fear, they were returned to their home cages and left undisturbed until the following morning.
Eighteen hours after the initial fear conditioning, the researchers divided the mice into two groups. One group was placed in a new cage, where they were periodically kept awake through mild environmental disturbances. These included introducing new objects into the cage to encourage exploration, touching the cage, or gently tapping the mice on their hindquarters. The goal was to prevent them from sleeping for the next six hours. The other group of mice was left undisturbed.
The results showed that mice exposed to sleep disruption exhibited a significant reduction in fear responses to the conditioned sound both immediately after the six-hour disruption and 24 hours later, compared to the undisturbed group. Additionally, this sleep disruption increased the levels of mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
“These findings raise the possibility that the effects of our delayed sleep disruption regimen are not due to disruption of memory consolidation, but instead are caused by BDNF-mediated [brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated] neuroadaptations within the BLA [basolateral amygdala region of the brain] that actively suppress expression of fear. Treatments that safely reduce expression of fear memories would have considerable therapeutic potential in the treatment of conditions triggered by trauma,” the study authors concluded.
The study makes an important contribution to the scientific understanding of neural mechanisms underlying fear learning. However, it is important to note that the research was conducted on mice, not humans. While mice share many physiological similarities with humans, they are still distinct species, and results in humans may differ.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-024-01978-0) Acute sleep disruption reduces fear memories in male and female mice,” was authored by Allison R. Foilb, Elisa M. Taylor-Yeremeeva, Brett D. Schmidt, Kerry J. Ressler, and William A. Carlezon Jr.

(https://www.psypost.org/rejected-and-radicalized-study-links-manfluencers-rejection-and-misogyny-in-young-men/) Rejected and radicalized? Study links manfluencers, rejection, and misogyny in young men
Mar 4th 2025, 12:00

A recent study has uncovered a concerning link between young men’s consumption of online content from so-called “manfluencers” and increased negative attitudes toward women. Researchers found that young men who follow more of these influencers on social media are more prone to view women in a dehumanizing way. Furthermore, exposure to messages from these influencers that portray women and feminism as threats can lead to greater mistrust of women and more widespread misogynistic beliefs, especially among young men who feel they have been rejected by women in the past.
Manfluencers are male social media figures who have gained prominence by sharing opinions on topics related to gender roles, relationships, and social dynamics. They often use platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, and Twitter to reach large audiences, particularly among young men. Their content can include commentary on men’s issues, advice on dating, and perspectives on social changes. While some of these influencers frame their messages as practical or motivational, others express views that have been characterized as promoting traditional gender roles and questioning contemporary feminist ideas.
These influencers often inhabit the “manosphere,” a loosely connected online community where discussions about masculinity, gender relations, and men’s rights take place. This space includes a variety of websites, forums, and social media groups that share a range of opinions—from advocacy for men’s rights to more controversial and polarizing views on gender and society.
Participants in the manosphere often focus on the challenges they perceive as facing men in modern society, and they engage in debates about topics such as the nature of relationships, social expectations, and the impact of cultural changes on men’s lives. The community is diverse, with members ranging from those seeking support and understanding to those who adopt more rigid and critical stances toward changes in gender roles.
“We wanted to explore how young men react to manfluencer messages. As we see an increase in misogyny in many Western countries, and the narratives on the manosphere is often that feminism is to blame for the difficulties of men, we found it relevant to test the effect of such manfluencers,” explained study author Emma A. Renström, a professor at Kristianstad University and principal investigator for the (https://polbeh.com/about) Psychology of Political Behavior research project.
To investigate the influence of manfluencers, the researchers conducted three separate studies involving men in Sweden. Sweden was chosen as the location for this research because, despite its reputation as a highly gender-equal nation, it also exhibits some contradictory trends. For example, Sweden has a high number of users on misogynistic online forums per capita. Additionally, there has been a rise in right-wing political movements in Sweden that often promote traditional, stereotypical views of gender roles. These factors make Sweden a particularly interesting place to study the dynamics of gender attitudes and the potential influence of manfluencers.
The first study was a large online survey involving 2,857 Swedish men. Participants were recruited through an online survey company and represented a range of ages and backgrounds. In the survey, men were asked about their education level, income, political views, and whether they were in a relationship. They were also asked to indicate which, if any, of a list of well-known manfluencers they followed on social media. This list included figures known for expressing misogynistic or anti-feminist views. To measure dehumanization of women, the researchers used statements such as “Generally I treat women as they are only worth what they can offer me” and “Generally I treat women as they are only means to an end.” Participants rated their agreement with these statements on a scale from ‘do not agree at all’ to ‘completely agree.’
The second and third studies were experiments designed to more directly test the impact of manfluencer content. In the second experiment, 597 Swedish men participated. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group was shown a fake social media post, supposedly from a manfluencer, containing a message that could be seen as threatening to men’s status. Examples of these messages included claims that women are taking over leadership roles in society or that women’s salaries are increasing faster than men’s. These posts concluded with a statement like, “This development towards a more male hostile society must be stopped!”
The other group, the control group, saw a neutral social media post on an unrelated topic, such as new research findings about animals or technology. After viewing the post, participants were asked to estimate what percentage of reported sexual harassment cases they believed were falsely made up by women. This question was used to measure mistrust of women, a common theme in the manosphere. Participants were also asked to rate their experiences of rejection by women using statements like “I have tried to get a partner, but I have been repeatedly rejected.”
The third experiment involved 630 young Swedish men, aged 18 to 25. This study was similar to the second experiment but focused specifically on a younger demographic and used slightly different content and measurements. The manfluencer posts in this experiment were designed to more directly blame feminism for problems men face. For instance, some posts claimed that “feminists have taught women” to falsely accuse men of sexual harassment or to prioritize career over family, which is “not okay” for men. The control group again saw neutral posts on unrelated topics. In this study, misogyny was measured using a set of statements reflecting general misogynistic attitudes, such as “Women exploit men for their own agendas” and “When it comes down to it, a lot of women are deceitful.” Participants rated their agreement with these statements. They were also again asked about their experiences of rejection by women.
The first study’s findings revealed that young men who followed a greater number of manfluencers were indeed more likely to dehumanize women. This link was particularly strong among younger men compared to older men in the survey.
Renström told PsyPost that it is “not really surprising, but quite depressing, that young men are the ones expressing most misogyny nowadays.”
The second experiment showed that exposing men to manfluencer content that presented threats to men’s status made them more mistrustful of women, specifically increasing their belief that women falsely accuse men of sexual harassment. Importantly, this effect was stronger among younger men who also reported feeling rejected by women in the past.
The third experiment, focusing solely on young men, further supported these findings. It showed that exposure to manfluencer content increased overall misogynistic attitudes in young men who felt they had been rejected by women. In essence, the research suggests that when young men who feel romantically rejected are exposed to manfluencer messages that blame women and feminism for men’s problems, it can create a cycle leading to increased misogyny.
The findings suggest that “influencers have a substantial effect on their followers, especially if they are vulnerable,” Renström said. “We found that young men who perceive themselves as having been rejected by women were more influenced by manfluencer messages. Thus, as a society we need to be better at talking about this with young people.”
As with all research, there are some caveats to consider. The first survey study could only show a correlation—not a direct cause—between following manfluencers and misogyny. It’s possible that men already holding misogynistic views are simply more inclined to seek out and follow manfluencers. While the experiments helped to suggest a causal link, the online environment is complex, and real-world effects might be more nuanced.
Additionally, the list of manfluencers used in the first study, while including prominent figures, might not have been exhaustive, and it’s challenging to perfectly capture the diverse range of online influencers. Future research could explore allowing participants to name the influencers they follow in their own words.
Despite these limitations, the findings highlight the significance of social media influencers in shaping opinions, particularly among younger audiences. The study suggests that manfluencer content that presents women and feminism as threats can contribute to the spread of misogynistic views, especially among young men who may be vulnerable due to feelings of rejection.
Renström hopes the research brings “awareness to the increasing polarization between young women and men when it comes to gender-related issues and to better understand the psychological mechanisms behind this polarization. Especially, to bring awareness of men’s adoption of misogyny so that this can be prevented.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-024-01538-2) Manfluencers and Young Men’s Misogynistic Attitudes: The Role of Perceived Threats to Men’s Status,” was authored by Emma A. Renström and Hanna Bäck.

(https://www.psypost.org/adhd-diagnoses-on-the-rise-among-working-age-adults-in-the-united-states/) ADHD diagnoses on the rise among working-age adults in the United States
Mar 4th 2025, 10:00

New research published in the (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10870547251319861) Journal of Attention Disorders reveals a significant increase in the number of working-age adults in the United States who report having ever been diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. The study found that nearly 14% of adults between the ages of 18 and 64 reported a past diagnosis, a figure substantially higher than estimates from just over a decade ago. Researchers also uncovered notable differences in diagnosis rates across various demographic groups, including sex, age, race, education level, and where people live.
For years, researchers have suspected that the number of adults diagnosed with ADHD has been climbing. However, solid data on this trend has been lacking. While studies have examined ADHD prevalence in adults using older data or data from other countries, up-to-date, nationally representative information for working-age adults in the U.S. has been scarce. It’s important to focus on this age group because ADHD can significantly affect many aspects of their lives, such as job performance, financial stability, relationships, overall health, and even risky behaviors.
To address this knowledge gap, researchers turned to a newly available resource: the 2023 National Wellbeing Survey. This survey offered a unique opportunity to get a current snapshot of self-reported ADHD diagnoses in this population. Around the time this study was being prepared for publication, another research group released similar estimates using a different data source. This led the researchers to compare their findings with these new estimates to provide a more complete picture of the current situation.
“There were several reasons to believe that the percentage of working-age adults who have been diagnosed with ADHD by a health care provider has increased over time. However, there is limited population-representative data to test that idea,” said study author Andrew S. London, associate dean for Maxwell Programs in DC and professor of sociology at Syracuse University.
“At the time we began this paper, we believed (https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/research/lerner-center/health-research/national-wellbeing-survey) the National Wellbeing Survey was the only recent national data set that would allow such estimates to be made. While the paper was in review, another set of estimates became available. Hence, at the Editor’s and Reviewers’ suggestion, we spent considerable time in this paper talking about similarities and differences in the estimates obtained from the two studies. This research fills a major gap in the literature.”
The 2023 National Wellbeing Survey included responses from 7,053 working-age adults across the United States. This survey is conducted online annually and aims to represent the non-institutionalized adult population between 18 and 64 years old who can read English. Participants are recruited from online panels managed by a company called Qualtrics Panels. For the 2023 survey, a large number of panel members were contacted, and nearly 15,000 completed the survey.
To ensure the quality of the data, responses were checked for issues like rushing through the survey or giving the same answer repeatedly, and some responses were removed from the final dataset due to quality concerns. While online surveys often have lower response rates than traditional mail or phone surveys, the response rate for this survey was comparable to other national online surveys.
In the survey, participants were asked if a healthcare professional had ever told them they had any of a list of medical conditions, including “ADHD or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).” The researchers then analyzed the percentage of people who answered “yes” to this question. They looked at the overall percentage and also broke it down by different demographic characteristics such as sex (male or female), age group (18-29, 30-39, 40-49, and 50-64 years), race and ethnicity (White, Black/African American, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and other/multiple race), whether they were born in the U.S. or not, education level (less than high school, high school graduate, some college, bachelor’s degree or higher), and urban or rural residence.
To ensure the survey results accurately reflected the U.S. working-age population, the researchers used statistical weights. These weights adjusted the sample to match the known demographics of this population in terms of sex, age, race, education, and urban/rural location.
Interestingly, the researchers noticed that the survey sample initially appeared less healthy than what is typically seen in national health surveys. Because health status can be related to ADHD, they made an additional adjustment to the weights to ensure the sample’s health profile was more in line with national averages, specifically matching the self-rated health distribution from the 2023 National Health Interview Survey. They then calculated the percentages of self-reported ADHD diagnoses using both the original weights and these adjusted weights.
The study’s primary finding was that 13.9% of working-age adults in the U.S. reported having ever received an ADHD diagnosis from a healthcare professional. This number is considerably higher than a 2012 estimate of 4.25% for a similar population and also higher than a recent estimate of 7.8% for all adults aged 18 and older in 2023 from the other study.
“It was somewhat surprising that the levels were as high as they were,” London told PsyPost. “That said, they seem consistent with rates of diagnosis in childhood plus the growth in new adult diagnoses. Thus, they seem plausible. The increase over time may reflect changes in diagnostic criteria for children and adults, greater acceptance of adult diagnosis, over- and mis-diagnosis, and methodological issues.”
The researchers found that diagnosis rates varied across all the demographic factors they examined. Women were more likely to report a diagnosis than men, although the difference was relatively small. Younger adults had much higher rates of diagnosis compared to older adults, with the highest rates in the 18-29 age group and the lowest in the 50-64 group. Non-Hispanic White adults had higher rates than other racial and ethnic groups. U.S.-born adults reported diagnoses more frequently than those born outside the U.S.
Individuals with less education were more likely to report an ADHD diagnosis than those with higher education levels. Finally, people living in mid-sized metropolitan areas (with populations between 250,000 and 1 million) had the highest rates, compared to those in the largest metropolitan areas (over 1 million population).
To put their findings in perspective, the researchers also analyzed data from the 2023 National Center for Health Statistics Rapid Surveys System, the same data source used in the other recent study. Using this dataset and focusing on working-age adults, they estimated a slightly lower prevalence of 9.6%. While this is still a substantial figure and higher than previous estimates, it is lower than the 13.9% found in the National Wellbeing Survey. The researchers point out that the difference might be due to variations in the specific online panels used for each survey, subtle differences in survey methods, and how quality control was handled in each study.
The researchers acknowledge that their study has some limitations. The National Wellbeing Survey, even with adjustments, may not perfectly represent the overall health of the U.S. population.
“The sample was drawn from an online panel and weighted to make it demographically representative of the population,” London noted. “We also adjusted the weight to enhance sample generalizability. There are better methodologies—gold-standard methodologies—for drawing probability samples of populations. Such samples are better for generalizing results to the population level.”
“While we have confidence in our estimates, we would like to see surveys that use the gold-standard sampling approach collect data on lifetime and current ADHD, as well as symptoms. This would allow for potentially more-precise estimates, validation of our estimates, and research on factors that are associated with ADHD. We are doing some of the work on factors association with ADHD now with the National Wellbeing Survey.”
Despite these limitations, this study offers valuable, up-to-date estimates of self-reported ADHD diagnoses among working-age adults in the U.S. These findings highlight a potential increase in diagnoses and significant demographic variations. The researchers hope their work will encourage further research to confirm these trends and better understand the reasons behind them.
“We would like to contribute current research on adult ADHD and its consequences across a range of life-course domains—health, substance use, marriage/family outcomes, etc,” London said. “The National Wellbeing Survey allows for that in a way that no other national, population-representative survey does. We hope this research will raise awareness, stimulate more data collection, and encourage others to do research in this area.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547251319861) Self-Reported ADHD Diagnosis Status Among Working-Age Adults in the United States: Evidence From the 2023 National Wellbeing Survey,” was authored by Andrew S. London, Shannon M. Monnat, and Iliya Gutin.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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