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(https://www.psypost.org/psychological-skills-and-strategies-enhance-athlete-performance-under-pressure/) Psychological skills and strategies enhance athlete performance under pressure
Mar 4th 2025, 08:00

How do athletes perform well under pressure? A meta-study, published in the (https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2024.2414442) International Review of Sport & Exercise Psychology, reveals that athletes who perform well under pressure rely on high self-efficacy, mental toughness, and cognitive-behavioral strategies such as pre-performance routines, imagery techniques, and self-talk.
While there has been extensive research on “choking” under pressure, comparatively little is known about the mechanisms that enable “clutch performance”—where athletes thrive despite high stakes. Previous research has focused on preventing performance breakdown, but this meta-study by Jacob R. Hufton and colleagues aimed to consolidate findings on how athletes achieve peak performance under stressful conditions.
The researchers followed a structured four-stage approach, which included meta-data analysis, meta-method analysis, meta-theory analysis, and a final meta-synthesis. They gathered data from 29 qualitative studies, from 543 participants, including 453 athletes, 77 coaches, and 13 sport practitioners. The participants spanned a range of sports and competitive levels, from recreational athletes to elite professionals.
The researchers conducted database searches in September 2022, August 2023, and August 2024, using predefined keywords related to performance pressure in sports. Studies were included only if they were published in peer-reviewed journals, reported original qualitative research, and specifically examined athletes’ or relevant stakeholders’ perceptions of performing under pressure. Data collection in the reviewed studies primarily involved semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and open-ended survey responses. The researchers used thematic synthesis to code and categorize findings.
Self-efficacy emerged as a critical factor in clutch performance. Athletes with high self-efficacy consistently appraise high-pressure situations as challenges to overcome rather than threats to avoid. This strong self-belief grants them greater control over their actions, helping them maintain both composure and focus when it matters most.
Mental toughness was identified as another significant contributor to performance under pressure. Athletes with this quality are better equipped to manage stress and sustain high performance levels throughout competitive events. Similarly important was positive appraisal of situational demands—athletes who interpreted pressure as an opportunity rather than a burden consistently achieved more optimal performance.
The research also identified specific cognitive-behavioral strategies that facilitate excellence under pressure. Pre-performance routines, such as structured warm-up rituals and visualization exercises, were widely reported as effective methods for maintaining consistency and reducing anxiety. Athletes also benefited from simulated pressure training, deliberately practicing under stress-inducing conditions to better prepare for real competition scenarios.
Goal setting proved particularly valuable when objectives were process-oriented rather than outcome-based, helping athletes maintain focus on the immediate task. Self-talk strategies, including positive affirmations and motivational cues, were commonly employed to reinforce confidence and redirect attention toward performance tasks. Another effective technique was cognitive restructuring, which involved reframing negative thoughts into constructive perspectives to maintain mental clarity under pressure.
These findings suggest that a combination of strong psychological attributes and well-practiced strategies can significantly enhance an athlete’s ability to perform at their best in high-stakes situations.
Given the qualitative nature of the studies, interpretations of findings could vary among researchers.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2024.2414442) How do athletes perform well under pressure? A meta-study,” was authored by Jacob R. Hufton, Stewart A. Vella, Scott G. Goddard, and Matthew J. Schweickle.

(https://www.psypost.org/how-cannabis-influences-brain-plasticity-scientists-uncover-crucial-role-of-astrocytes/) How cannabis influences brain plasticity: Scientists uncover crucial role of astrocytes
Mar 4th 2025, 06:00

Scientists have discovered that a specific type of brain cell, called an astrocyte, may be a key player in how cannabis influences the developing brain. Their new research in mice, published in (https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)02635-X) iScience, reveals that cannabinoid receptors located on astrocytes are essential for the brain’s ability to adapt and change early in life, a process known as plasticity. When these receptors were removed from astrocytes, the young mice’s visual systems struggled to adjust to changes in their environment, suggesting that astrocytes and their cannabinoid receptors are unexpectedly important for brain development.
Cannabis is known to bind to cannabinoid receptors in the brain, and these receptors are involved in numerous brain functions. For a long time, it was generally thought that these receptors primarily resided on nerve cells, which are the brain’s main communication units. However, recent evidence suggested that other types of brain cells, specifically astrocytes, might also possess these receptors and play a significant role.
Astrocytes are a type of support cell in the brain, known as glial cells. They have various support functions, helping nerve cells to function properly. Scientists knew from earlier research that astrocytes could influence brain plasticity. In a previous experiment, transplanting astrocytes from young cats into the visual cortex of older cats surprisingly made the older cats’ brains more adaptable again, reopening a period of heightened plasticity that typically exists only in young brains. This suggested that astrocytes held a key to brain flexibility.
It was also observed that the cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes become less active as we age, raising the question of whether these receptors on astrocytes are connected to the brain’s enhanced plasticity during youth. The current research team aimed to investigate this potential link and determine the precise role of cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes in brain development and plasticity. They wanted to understand if these receptors were indeed important for the brain’s ability to adjust and change during critical periods of development, and if so, how this might relate to the effects of cannabis, especially given concerns about cannabis use during adolescence when the brain is still maturing.
“The cannabinoid CB1 receptor is one of the most abundant signaling receptors in the brain. Our earlier work had shown that it is not only present on neurons, but also on supportive brain cells called astrocytes. In this study ,we wanted to investigate how these receptors on astrocytes contribute to brain plasticity,” said study author Rogier Min, a neuroscientist affiliated with the Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center at the Amsterdam University Medical Center.
“In earlier studies from the 80s, researchers injected astrocytes from a kitten into the visual cortex of an older cat, the brain area involved in vision. As a result, the critical period was opened once more, meaning that the brain could adjust more easily again,” added Christiaan Levelt of the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience. “We also know that the CB1-receptor in astrocytes is expressed less and less as we age. Could there be a link here? And could this mean that the CB1-receptor on astrocytes play a role in this critical period plasticity?”
To investigate this, the scientists used genetically modified mice. They created special mouse models in which they could selectively turn off cannabinoid receptors in specific types of brain cells. They created two groups of mice: in one group, the cannabinoid receptors were turned off only in nerve cells, and in the other group, they were turned off only in astrocytes. This allowed the researchers to examine the unique contribution of cannabinoid receptors in each of these cell types separately.
The researchers focused their study on the visual system, specifically the visual cortex, which is the area of the brain that processes visual information. They chose to study the visual system because it is a well-understood model for brain development and plasticity. A key aspect of brain development is plasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections throughout life. This plasticity is particularly strong during specific windows of time in early development, known as critical periods.
During these critical periods, the brain is highly sensitive to experience and can readily adapt to its environment. One way to study plasticity in the visual system is through a process called monocular deprivation. This involves temporarily covering one eye during the critical period for vision. In normal young animals, the brain responds to this by strengthening the connections to the uncovered eye and weakening the connections to the covered eye, demonstrating the brain’s adaptability.
In their experiment, the researchers temporarily covered one eye of young mice during the critical period for visual development. They then examined how the brains of these mice adapted to this change, comparing the mice with cannabinoid receptors removed from nerve cells, those with receptors removed from astrocytes, and normal control mice. To assess the brain’s adaptability, they measured a process called ocular dominance plasticity. This refers to the shift in brain activity towards the eye that is receiving more visual input.
To understand the underlying mechanisms, the scientists also examined the development of inhibitory nerve cells in the brain. Inhibitory nerve cells, also known as interneurons, are essential for maintaining balance in brain activity. They act like brakes, preventing the brain from becoming overactive. The researchers studied how removing cannabinoid receptors from different cell types affected the development of these inhibitory cells and their connections in the visual cortex.
They used a technique called electrophysiology to measure the activity of brain cells and the strength of their connections. Specifically, they made recordings from brain slices of the mice to examine the function of synapses, which are the points of communication between nerve cells. They focused on inhibitory synapses, the connections made by inhibitory nerve cells. They measured how these synapses responded to repeated stimulation and assessed a property called short-term depression, which indicates the maturity of the synapse. Mature synapses typically show less short-term depression. They also investigated a form of plasticity at inhibitory synapses called inhibitory long-term depression, to see if cannabinoid receptors on either cell type were necessary for this particular type of synaptic change.
In addition to these detailed cellular studies, the researchers also used optical imaging, a technique that allows them to visualize brain activity across larger areas. This allowed them to measure the overall response of the visual cortex to stimulation of each eye, providing a measure of ocular dominance plasticity in the intact brain. Furthermore, to get a more detailed picture across different layers of the brain, they used electrophysiological recordings in living mice, employing probes that could record activity at different depths in the visual cortex. This allowed them to see if the effects of removing cannabinoid receptors differed in different layers of the brain’s visual processing center. Throughout their experiments, they carefully compared the genetically modified mice to normal mice to determine the specific role of cannabinoid receptors in different brain cell types for brain development and plasticity.
The researchers found that removing cannabinoid receptors from astrocytes had a significant impact on brain development and plasticity, while removing them from nerve cells did not. “The finding that genetically removing cannabinoid receptors from neurons had no effect on brain plasticity was surprising (but in line with our hypothesis),” Min told PsyPost.
They found that in mice lacking cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes, the inhibitory synapses in the visual cortex did not mature normally. These synapses remained in a more immature state, showing more short-term depression than those in normal mice. This indicated that astrocytes, through their cannabinoid receptors, play a role in the normal maturation of inhibitory connections in the brain.
Perhaps most surprisingly, the researchers found that ocular dominance plasticity was severely impaired in mice without cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes. When one eye was temporarily covered, the brains of these mice were much less able to adapt to this change compared to normal mice. The visual cortex of these mice did not show the typical shift in activity towards the uncovered eye, demonstrating a significant deficit in brain plasticity.
Interestingly, mice without cannabinoid receptors on nerve cells showed normal ocular dominance plasticity, adapting to the change in visual input just like the control mice. This strongly suggested that astrocytes, and not nerve cells, are the key cell type through which cannabinoid receptors influence this form of brain plasticity during development. This effect on plasticity was observed across all layers of the visual cortex, but was particularly pronounced in the deeper layers of this brain region.
When the researchers examined inhibitory long-term depression, a different form of plasticity at inhibitory synapses, they found that it was not affected by removing cannabinoid receptors from either astrocytes or nerve cells. This suggests that while astrocyte cannabinoid receptors are crucial for the maturation of inhibitory synapses and overall brain plasticity related to visual input, they are not necessary for all forms of plasticity at these synapses.
The findings indicate “that cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes play a key role in brain plasticity during development,” Min explained. “Early adjustments of the visual system are disrupted when the cannabinoid receptor is genetically removed from astrocytes.”
The researchers acknowledged some limitations to their study. One limitation is that in the genetically modified mice, cannabinoid receptors were not completely removed from all astrocytes. It is possible that some receptors remained, and this might have lessened the observed effects. Another point is that the removal of cannabinoid receptors from astrocytes was not limited to the visual cortex; it occurred throughout the brain. It is possible that the observed effects on visual plasticity could be indirectly influenced by changes in other brain regions, although the focus on the visual cortex and specific visual plasticity measures makes a direct effect within the visual system more likely.
For future research, the scientists suggest exploring the precise mechanisms by which cannabinoid receptors on astrocytes influence inhibitory synapse maturation and brain plasticity. It would also be valuable to investigate if more complete removal of cannabinoid receptors from astrocytes leads to even stronger effects. Understanding the specific role of astrocyte cannabinoid receptors could provide important insights into the potential risks of cannabis use, particularly during adolescence when the brain is still developing and highly plastic, and could inform strategies to mitigate any potential negative consequences.
“The young brain is very plastic and easily adjusts to alterations in sensory inputs,” Min said. “If we understand which mechanisms contribute to this increased plasticity, we might be able to re-instate levels of young plasticity in the adult brain. This study contributes to a better understanding of which plasticity mechanisms make the young brain plastic.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.111410) Inhibitory maturation and ocular dominance plasticity in mouse visual cortex require astrocyte CB1 receptors,” was authored by Rogier Min, Yi Qin, Sven Kerst, M. Hadi Saiepour, Mariska van Lier, and Christiaan N. Levelt

(https://www.psypost.org/the-unexpected-victims-of-sexism-men-economies-and-global-stability-according-to-new-research/) The unexpected victims of sexism: Men, economies, and global stability, according to new research
Mar 3rd 2025, 16:00

Feminism (https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/03/07/global-backlash-against-womens-rights) is facing a backlash, with women’s rights being rolled back in many countries and a (https://www.ft.com/content/1decbdd1-3518-4faa-be7d-e1bc0471ad9d) significant number of people saying feminism has gone far enough or even too far. Yet women still face basic obstacles to education in some countries and are generally (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c1k3k9y2dp3o) paid less than men. They still suffer from male violence and, in some places, face increasing restrictions to reproductive rights. There are even some places where (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cvge858dvl5o) families force midwives to kill their newborn girls.
Many women are also fed up with doing both a full-time job and the lion’s share of domestic duties and unpaid caring jobs. It’s easy to wonder whether gender equality is simply impossible, especially as many men inaccurately perceive that gains for women equate (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.2696) losses for men.
But there is hope. Our (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/19485506241302882) 62-nation psychological study, which is largest of its kind, suggests that gender equality benefits us all and sexism is harmful to everybody – women, men and nations in many surprising ways. As such, we all have an interest in promoting egalitarianism.
As our findings show, sexism is linked with several social ills affecting us all. For example, higher sexism predicted lower GDP – indicating lower economic productivity. It also predicted a lower “global peace index”, meaning nation’s higher domestic and international conflict, militarisation and lower safety and security.
Further, sexism was linked to a greater level of antidemocratic practices in a given country. Lastly, it even predicted shorter healthy lifespans (ones without chronic disease or disability) in women and men as measured with WHO’s Healthy Life Expectancy in Women and Men. For example, our data reveals that one point increase in sexism (measured from 0-5) is linked with a 9.12 months shorter lifespan in men and 8.88 months in women.
While the type of analysis we did cannot directly prove that sexism causes these issues, the pattern of our findings aligns with theoretically driven predictions and with experiments that directly test such links on a smaller scale. It makes more sense to expect that sexism leads to poor health than that poor health leads to sexism, for example.
Specifically, other research reports that (https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/1602/1/paper_212.pdf) sexism reduces human capital by restricting women’s education and job opportunities, thus depleting economic productivity. A country where most women work is likely to have much higher productivity than a country where all the women stay at home.
Research also shows that sexist masculine norms (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0963721411402669) encourage male violence contributing to greater conflict. And we know that sexism is linked to (https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jwh.2020.8682) medical discrimination for women, such as less medical research on women and (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03630242.2017.1306606) treating women’s complaints as less credible. This may lead to poorer health.
For men, sexism (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332730922_Precarious_Manhood_and_Men's_Health_Disparities) discourages seeking help for psychological or medical problems, seeing it as weakness. It also (https://www.proquest.com/docview/1311942369?sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals) encourages risk-taking, such as aggression or not using seatbelts. This may well cause a reduction in health and wellbeing.
Two faces of sexism
Importantly, our study also reveals that affectionate but patronising attitudes to women are also harmful to all – (https://kar.kent.ac.uk/68976/1/Hopkins-Doyle%20et%20al.%20%282018%29_JPSP_KAR.pdf) you might not even recognise them as sexist. And you are not alone.
After 30 years of its conception, our research supports the (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37824246/) ambivalent sexism theory. The theory proposes that sexism has two faces: hostile and benevolent. While both are ugly, the latter hides under the veil of superficial positivity. Hostile sexism is an open and overt hostility to non-traditional women and a desire to punish those who break norms, such as female politicians.
Benevolent sexism, on the other hand, is superficially positive but patronising. It includes attitudes that reward traditional women, such as stay-at-home mums, by idealising them, offering them male protection and provision. This sounds innocent, but such beliefs imply women’s weakness.
In fact, research has shown that exposure to benevolent sexism (https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-007-9306-1&casa_token=o4ga0al3L6IAAAAA:GpSKFyXJc-VAAKAGjdpaaVTVwW0ZU7nYVQqHDA0Yazu6Nw5tVjdMuGYLLiy85ccXmUeKuNJMVORjRIJzqw) increases women’s acceptance of hostile sexism, (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0361684313498573?casa_token=EmGtgDQbaL8AAAAA:gJo-wWMK3V9yYxCc_tgWWku0Ddjbo8sBpiJDL7Qww2gxF9wy-Q32a6TGIp7tyID5zWBiKDBOMyi3vg) decreases their work performance, and (https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0022615) reduces their support for gender equality action.
Both ideologies work together to maintain men’s power over women: they form a system of rewards and punishments akin (https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Ov-rEItPrE0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=+jackman+iron+fist+and+velvet+glove&ots=-HtEob-Nt-&sig=yA2tfQOSMJugRW3VXAzHdKX7vQw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=jackman%20iron%20fist%20and%20velvet%20glove&f=false) to the iron fist (hostility) in a velvet glove (benevolence). Thus, hostile and benevolent sexism are internalised also by women.
Our study shows that people who hold benevolent sexist views are also more likely to hold hostile sexist views, as the two correlate positively in 62 countries across five continents. Compared with 2000, when the last such study was done in (https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/28641/1/glickfiske) 19 countries, average national sexism scores dropped a meagre 0.47 points (on a 0-5 scale). See (https://ie-tc.shinyapps.io/TGHMap/) our world map of this and other concepts we measured.
While men are more sexist than women around the world, women’s beliefs about themselves are also sexist to some extent. Interestingly, as men’s hostile sexism increased, women embraced benevolent sexism more (sometimes outscoring men) – probably attempting to secure the promised protection and provision.
Unfortunately, this benevolent promise appears false. Across our 62 countries, the higher benevolent sexism, the lower was the gender equality, women’s labour participation and the more time women spend on unpaid domestic chores.
Taken together, our research suggests that it may well be in the interests of women, men and nations alike to tackle sexism for a better future for us all. In other words, women’s gains mean men’s gains too.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/sexism-linked-to-social-ills-for-men-and-women-finds-largest-cross-cultural-study-of-its-kind-247183) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/perfectionistic-tendencies-may-explain-why-some-men-develop-muscle-dysmorphia/) Perfectionistic tendencies may explain why some men develop muscle dysmorphia
Mar 3rd 2025, 14:00

A new study published in (https://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/download/muscle-dysmorphia-in-gym-going-men-the-role-of-narcissism-vulnerability-and-perfectionism/) Clinical Neuropsychiatry has shed light on why some men develop muscle dysmorphia, a condition characterized by an obsessive desire to be more muscular. Researchers found that vulnerable narcissism, a form of narcissism marked by feelings of inadequacy and sensitivity to criticism, is linked to an increased risk of muscle dysmorphia. This risk appears to be driven by perfectionistic tendencies, suggesting that the pursuit of an unattainable ideal physique may be a way for men with vulnerable narcissism to cope with their insecurities.
Muscle dysmorphia, sometimes referred to as “reverse anorexia,” is a mental health condition where individuals become fixated on the idea that they are not muscular enough, even when they are objectively very muscular. People with muscle dysmorphia often experience significant distress and engage in excessive exercise, dieting, and sometimes the use of performance-enhancing drugs in their pursuit of muscularity. 
Although it is classified as a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder, some experts argue that it shares more similarities with eating disorders. Muscle dysmorphia is more commonly reported in men, especially those involved in bodybuilding or weightlifting, and it can have serious negative impacts on mental and physical well-being. Recognizing the potential harm associated with muscle dysmorphia, scientists are working to better understand the factors that contribute to its development.
Previous research has suggested a possible link between narcissism and muscle dysmorphia. Narcissism, often associated with arrogance and a need for admiration, is a complex personality trait. It is increasingly understood to have two main forms: grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism. Grandiose narcissism involves an inflated sense of self-importance and a desire for attention, while vulnerable narcissism is characterized by low self-esteem, sensitivity to judgment, and feelings of shame. While some studies have explored the connection between narcissism and muscle dysmorphia, the specific role of vulnerable narcissism has become a focus, as it appears more closely related to body image concerns and anxieties.
Furthermore, perfectionism, the tendency to demand flawlessness and set excessively high standards, has also been implicated in muscle dysmorphia. Individuals striving for an “ideal” body may exhibit perfectionistic traits in their pursuit of muscularity. Researchers theorize that perfectionism might act as a bridge between vulnerable narcissism and muscle dysmorphia. Men with vulnerable narcissism, feeling inadequate and imperfect, might turn to perfectionistic behaviors in their pursuit of muscularity as a way to compensate for these feelings. However, the precise way in which perfectionism might connect vulnerable narcissism to muscle dysmorphia risk has not been thoroughly examined until now.
To investigate this potential connection, researchers in Turkey conducted a study involving 135 men who regularly went to the gym. The participants, with an average age of 25, were recruited from various gyms in Istanbul. The majority were single and held bachelor’s degrees. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of a relevant institution, and all participants provided informed consent. They were told the study was about understanding men’s eating and exercise habits. Each participant completed a set of questionnaires under the supervision of the research team, which took approximately 20 minutes. To ensure privacy, each participant was assigned a unique code.
The questionnaires included several measures designed to assess different aspects of the participants’ psychology and behaviors. First, participants filled out a basic information sheet detailing their age, marital status, and education level. They were also asked about their gym habits, including the type and frequency of their training, participation in competitions, eating habits (number of meals and snacks per day), and use of anabolic steroids and nutritional supplements.
To measure muscle dysmorphia risk, the researchers used the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory. This questionnaire contains 13 questions assessing symptoms of muscle dysmorphia across three areas: the drive for size (e.g., “I think my chest is too small”), intolerance of appearance (e.g., “I wear loose clothing so that people cannot see my body”), and functional impairment due to muscle dysmorphia (e.g., “I pass up social activities because of my workout schedule”). Participants rated each item on a scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Higher total scores on this inventory indicate a greater risk for muscle dysmorphia. A score of 39 or higher is considered indicative of being at risk for muscle dysmorphia.
Narcissism was measured using a Turkish version of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. This questionnaire is designed to assess both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. It includes 40 items across seven factors, such as exploitativeness, contingent self-esteem, denial of dependency, grandiose fantasy, entitlement rage, self-sacrificing, and self-enhancement. For this study, the researchers focused specifically on the vulnerable narcissism aspect of the inventory, using a scale derived from the questionnaire that specifically measures vulnerable narcissism.
Perfectionism was assessed using the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, adapted for use in Turkish. This 45-item questionnaire measures three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism (setting high standards for oneself, e.g., “When I am working on something, I cannot relax until it is perfect”), other-oriented perfectionism (setting high standards for others, e.g., “Everything that others do, must be of top-notch quality”), and socially prescribed perfectionism (perceiving that others have high expectations, e.g., “I find it difficult to meet others’ expectations of me”). Participants rated each item on a scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” with higher scores indicating greater perfectionism.
The researchers analyzed the collected data using statistical methods to determine the relationships between vulnerable narcissism, perfectionism, and muscle dysmorphia risk. They used a specific statistical technique called mediation analysis to see if perfectionism acted as an intermediary factor in the relationship between vulnerable narcissism and muscle dysmorphia risk.
The study revealed that a significant portion of the gym-going men, 37.8% or 51 out of 135 participants, were identified as being at risk for muscle dysmorphia based on their scores on the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory. When comparing the group at risk for muscle dysmorphia with the group not at risk, some interesting differences emerged. The muscle dysmorphia risk group was less likely to participate in fitness competitions, even though they exercised more frequently each week. They also reported consuming more main meals per day and were more likely to use or consider using anabolic steroids and nutritional supplements. Interestingly, the muscle dysmorphia risk group was more likely to be married compared to the group not at risk, although this finding may require further investigation to understand its meaning.
The core finding of the study was that perfectionism does indeed appear to mediate the relationship between vulnerable narcissism and muscle dysmorphia risk. This means that vulnerable narcissism indirectly increases the risk of muscle dysmorphia through its influence on perfectionism. In other words, men with higher levels of vulnerable narcissism tend to be more perfectionistic, and this perfectionism, in turn, increases their risk of developing muscle dysmorphia. While vulnerable narcissism alone was initially associated with muscle dysmorphia risk, this association became weaker when perfectionism was taken into account, suggesting that perfectionism plays a key role in explaining this link.
These findings suggest that for men struggling with vulnerable narcissism, the drive for muscularity might be fueled by a deep-seated need to attain an unattainable ideal of physical perfection. Feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt, core features of vulnerable narcissism, may be projected onto their bodies, leading to an obsessive pursuit of muscularity as a way to compensate for these feelings. Perfectionism, in this context, becomes the mechanism through which this narcissistic vulnerability translates into muscle dysmorphia risk. The constant striving for a perfect physique, driven by perfectionistic tendencies, can become a self-defeating cycle, potentially leading to the harmful behaviors associated with muscle dysmorphia.
As with all research, there are some limitations. Because the study only looked at a snapshot in time, it cannot prove cause and effect. Future research could follow people over time to understand how these factors interact and how muscle dysmorphia develops. The study also relied only on questionnaires, which can be influenced by self-serving biases. Using more objective methods like observing behavior or conducting interviews would be helpful in the future. 
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.36131/cnfioritieditore20240303) Muscle Dysmorphia in Gym-Going Men: The Role of Narcissism Vulnerability and Perfectionism,” was authored by Hasan Emre Kandemir, Annarosa Cipriano, Marco Scotto Rosato, Barış Önen Ünsalver, Margherita Stabile, and Stefania Cella.

(https://www.psypost.org/metabolic-signature-of-depression-found-in-blood-revealing-biological-links-to-the-disorder/) Metabolic signature of depression found in blood, revealing biological links to the disorder
Mar 3rd 2025, 12:00

A large-scale study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02613-6) Molecular Psychiatry has uncovered a distinct pattern of biological changes in people with major depressive disorder. Individuals experiencing depression, both currently and in the past, showed alterations in various small molecules in their blood, particularly those related to fats. These findings suggest that disruptions in the body’s metabolism, especially concerning fats, may play a significant role in the development and experience of depression, opening new avenues for understanding and potentially treating this widespread condition.
Depression is known to be a multifaceted condition influenced by genetics, environment, and lifestyle. While psychological and social factors are clearly important, researchers are increasingly recognizing that biological processes within the body are also deeply involved. Previous studies exploring the body’s chemistry in relation to depression have often been limited in scope, either focusing on a small number of substances or not involving participants formally diagnosed with depression through thorough psychiatric assessments.
To overcome these limitations and gain a more comprehensive view, researchers aimed to conduct a detailed investigation of a wide range of substances in the blood of a large group of people, including those with current and past depression, as well as healthy individuals, and to repeat these measurements over time. This approach was designed to identify a robust and reliable biological signature associated with major depressive disorder and to explore potential causal links between these biological changes and depression itself.
For their study, the research team utilized data from a large, ongoing Dutch study called the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. This study has been tracking the mental and physical health of thousands of participants over many years. For this particular analysis, the researchers examined blood samples collected from 2,770 participants at the start of the study. This group included 1,101 people who were experiencing major depressive disorder at the time of the study, 868 people who had experienced depression in the past but were currently in remission, and 801 healthy individuals with no history of depression. Six years later, blood samples were collected again from 1,805 of these participants, allowing for a follow-up analysis.
Participants in the study underwent detailed assessments, including psychiatric interviews to determine if they met the criteria for major depressive disorder according to established diagnostic guidelines. The severity of their depressive symptoms was also measured using a self-report questionnaire that asked about their mood and other symptoms in the week prior to the assessment. In addition to collecting blood samples, the researchers gathered information on various factors that could influence both depression and the substances in the blood. These factors included age, sex, education level, physical activity, smoking and alcohol consumption habits, existing chronic diseases, and medication use, including lipid-lowering drugs and different types of antidepressants.
The blood samples were analyzed using a sophisticated technology that can measure hundreds of different small molecules, known as metabolites, in a single sample. This platform, called Metabolon, allowed the researchers to get a broad overview of the body’s metabolic state. The researchers implemented rigorous quality control procedures to ensure the accuracy and reliability of their metabolite measurements. They then used statistical models to examine the relationships between the levels of these metabolites and depression status (current depression, past depression, or healthy control) and depression symptom severity, while taking into account the various influencing factors they had measured.
To further explore the nature of these relationships, the researchers also employed a technique called Mendelian randomization. This method uses genetic variations as tools to investigate potential cause-and-effect relationships between metabolite levels and depression risk. By leveraging large genetic datasets, they could examine if genetically predicted changes in metabolite levels were associated with a higher or lower risk of developing depression.
The analysis of the initial blood samples revealed that a substantial number of metabolites were different in people with current major depressive disorder compared to healthy controls. Specifically, 139 metabolites showed significant differences. Among these, 92 were found to be at lower levels, while 47 were at higher levels in individuals with current depression.
A large proportion of these altered metabolites, 79 in total, were also associated with the severity of depression symptoms, meaning that the more severe the symptoms, the more pronounced the changes in these metabolites. Interestingly, many of the same metabolites that were altered in people with current depression were also changed in those with past depression, although the changes were generally less pronounced in the remitted group.
Further analysis revealed that a significant portion of the altered metabolites were lipids, or fat-like substances. When the researchers grouped the metabolites into biological pathways, they found that certain pathways related to fats were particularly affected. Metabolites that were found to be decreased in depression were enriched in long-chain monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids, which are types of fats that are important for energy storage and cell structure. Conversely, metabolites that were increased in depression were enriched in lysophospholipids, a class of fats that play roles in cell signaling and inflammation.
To ensure the robustness of their findings, the researchers repeated some of their analyses using the blood samples collected six years later. They were able to confirm 34 of the initially identified metabolites, finding consistent directions of change between the baseline and follow-up measurements. This replication strengthened the evidence that these metabolic alterations are indeed linked to depression.
Finally, using Mendelian randomization, the researchers explored whether any of the identified metabolites might have a causal role in depression. Their analysis suggested that genetically predicted higher levels of a specific lysophospholipid, called 1-linoleoyl-GPE, were associated with an increased risk of depression. This finding provides preliminary evidence that this particular fat-like substance, or the biological processes that control its levels, could potentially contribute to the development of depression.
The researchers acknowledged some limitations to their study. While the follow-up measurements provided some confirmation, it was not a completely independent replication because it involved the same group of people at a later time point. Future studies in entirely new groups of participants are needed to further validate these findings. Additionally, the study design was observational, mainly showing associations rather than definitive proof of cause and effect, except for the preliminary causal evidence from the Mendelian randomization. The participants were also primarily of European ancestry, so it remains to be seen if these findings generalize to other populations.
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02613-6) The metabolome-wide signature of major depressive disorder,” was authored by Rick Jansen, Yuri Milaneschi, Daniela Schranner, Gabi Kastenmuller, Matthias Arnold, Xianlin Han, Boadie W. Dunlop, the Mood Disorder Precision Medicine Consortium, A. John Rush, Rima Kaddurah-Daouk, and Brenda W. J. H. Penninx.

(https://www.psypost.org/stimulant-medication-improves-working-memory-of-children-with-adhd-study-finds/) Stimulant medication improves working memory of children with ADHD, study finds
Mar 3rd 2025, 10:00

A study examining how working memory in children with ADHD varies with the use of stimulant medication found that these medications improve working memory. Both phonological and visuospatial working memory were better when children took medication and were more physically active during memory tasks. The effects of the medications on visuospatial memory were strongest in children who were most physically active during the tasks. The paper was published in (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-024-01210-z) Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects attention, impulse control, and activity levels. It is commonly diagnosed in childhood (most often at the start of school) but can persist into adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty focusing, excessive movement, impulsive decision-making, and trouble organizing tasks.
Treatment for ADHD includes psychotherapy, lifestyle adjustments, and medication. Stimulant medications are the most common treatment for ADHD. These medications can help improve focus and impulse control while reducing hyperactivity. They work by increasing the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, thereby enhancing attention and self-regulation. Common stimulants include methylphenidate (e.g., Ritalin, Concerta) and amphetamines (e.g., Adderall, Vyvanse).
Study author Emily Wiegers and her colleagues sought to examine the relationship between stimulant medication usage, body movements, and working memory performance in children with ADHD. They were particularly interested in the interaction between stimulant medication and children’s physical activity (i.e., how much they move) and its potential effects on working memory performance.
The researchers conducted a study in which they examined the working memory and physical activity levels of children with ADHD both when they were on stimulant medications and when they were not. They analyzed a publicly available dataset from the Summer Treatment Program at Florida International University—an 8-week behavioral intervention delivered in a summer camp setting for children between 6 and 12 years of age with ADHD. Data came from 43 children who participated in the camp, with an average age of 10 years, 81% of whom were boys.
During the first two weeks of the summer camp, the researchers determined the optimal medication dose for each participating child. Next, the children were randomly assigned to either receive the medication for the following three weeks or a placebo (a similarly looking capsule with no active ingredients). After three weeks on this regimen, the groups switched for the next three weeks—the group that had been taking the placebo started taking the stimulant medication, and vice versa.
During these six weeks, the children completed an extensive battery of neurocognitive tasks on four occasions. These tasks were used to assess two types of working memory: phonological memory and visuospatial memory. Phonological memory is the ability to temporarily store and manipulate verbal information, while visuospatial memory involves holding and processing visual and spatial details. While completing the cognitive tasks, participants wore actigraphy devices in the form of watches on their wrists and ankles to track their physical movements.
Results showed that participants performed significantly better on phonological working memory tasks when they were on stimulant medication than when they were not. Additionally, participants who were more physically active during the tasks tended to perform better on these tasks.
Study participants also performed better on visuospatial working memory tasks when they were using stimulant medication compared to when they were not. More active children also tended to perform better on these tasks. Analyses revealed that the effects of the medications on visuospatial working memory performance were greater in children who were the most physically active.
“Consistent with previous research, this study found that when children are medicated, they generally perform better on PH and VS WM [phonological and visuospatial working memory] tasks. Additionally, there was a relationship between scores on PH and VS WM tasks and the level of naturally occurring movement during the task as measured by actigraphy watches. Further, this study found that there was an optimal level of movement for each individual that is helpful for WM [working memory] tasks as seen by decreased score when there is little movement or too much movement,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the effects of stimulant medication on the working memory of children with ADHD. However, it should be noted that the study only examined the two aforementioned types of working memory and did not report the effects of medication on central executive working memory—the component that controls attention, coordinates cognitive processes, and manages the flow of information between different types of memory in the brain.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-024-01210-z) The Impact of Stimulant Medication on the Relation Between Working Memory and Activity Level in ADHD,” was authored by Emily Wiegers, Annie Garner, Morgan Jusko, Jessica N. Smith, Mileini Campez, Andrew Greiner, Elizabeth Gnagy, William E. Pelham, and Joseph Raiker Jr.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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