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(https://www.psypost.org/what-spreads-more-efficiently-on-twitter-political-love-or-hate-the-answer-may-surprise-you/) What spreads more efficiently on Twitter: political love or hate? The answer may surprise you
Oct 6th 2024, 10:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65688-9) Scientific Reports has provided new insights into how partisan content spreads on social media during election campaigns. Focusing on Twitter activity during four consecutive national elections in Spain, the study suggests that positive messages about users’ preferred political parties spread more efficiently than negative messages about opposing parties.
In other words, “in-party love” is shared and propagated more successfully than “out-party hate,” even among radical groups. This challenges common perceptions about how social media contributes to political polarization.
Many commentators have argued that social media plays a significant role in fostering political polarization by allowing like-minded individuals to form tight-knit communities that reinforce negative views about opposing political parties. This has been particularly linked to the rise of populist right-wing parties. However, the evidence from prior research has been inconsistent. Some studies suggest that users are exposed to more diverse opinions than expected, while others claim that social media amplifies extreme partisan attitudes.
The researchers behind this study aimed to clarify these conflicting findings by focusing on Twitter behavior during electoral campaigns. Election periods are key moments when political competition is at its most visible, and social media platforms are heavily used by political parties and their supporters. The Spanish context, marked by the rise of several new political parties and significant ideological fragmentation, provided an ideal case for studying these dynamics.
“I am interested in polarization from a general point of view because it seems widespread across multiple countries and because of its potential harms to democracy,” said study author (https://networkinequality.com/people/samuel-martin-gutierrez/) Samuel Martin-Gutierrez, a postdoctoral researcher at the Complexity Science Hub, who conducted this research while a PhD student at the Technical University of Madrid.
“In this paper, my collaborators and I focused on online communication because both experts and laypeople tend to believe that political communities online are organized in echo chambers and that negative polarizing messages spread further and wider than positive ones in social networks, so we wanted to verify whether that was the case with a systematic study.”
For their study, the researchers examined Twitter activity during four national elections in Spain, which took place in 2015, 2016, and twice in 2019. To gather data, the researchers used Twitter’s public data stream, focusing on tweets that mentioned the main political parties and their leaders. These tweets were identified through specific keywords such as party names, slogans, and candidate names.
The researchers then concentrated on retweets as a key measure of influence and message dissemination. Retweeting, they argued, represents more than just an acknowledgment; it reflects a user’s active decision to share a message with their followers, thereby amplifying its reach.
To analyze the data, the researchers focused on three main variables. The first was user ideology, where Twitter users were placed on a left-right ideological spectrum based on their retweeting patterns. Users who frequently retweeted content from left-wing parties were categorized as left-leaning, while those who retweeted right-wing parties were classified as right-leaning.
The second variable was retweeting efficiency, which measured how effectively users’ content spread on the platform. This was calculated by averaging the number of retweets each user received for their tweets. The higher the average number of retweets, the more efficiently that user’s content was spreading.
Finally, the researchers examined in-party vs. out-party content. This involved distinguishing between positive messages that expressed support for the user’s own party (in-party content) and negative messages that targeted other political parties (out-party content).
The study found that Twitter users were much more likely to retweet positive messages about their own political party than negative messages about opposing parties. This trend was consistent across all four elections analyzed. Even among users who supported radical parties, such as the far-left Podemos and the far-right Vox, positive in-party messages were more likely to be shared than hostile out-party messages.
Interestingly, the study also revealed that while negative out-party messages were common on Twitter, they were not very effective in terms of spreading widely. In fact, tweets attacking opposing parties tended to receive fewer retweets, even when posted by users affiliated with radical parties. This suggests that while users may express hostility toward other parties, they are less inclined to share such messages with others.
The researchers observed that areas of high retweet efficiency—where content spread the fastest—were dominated by positive in-party messages. These areas, which they described as “epistemic bubbles,” were ideologically homogeneous, meaning they primarily involved users sharing messages within their own political group. However, these bubbles were more likely to amplify messages of in-party support rather than out-party hostility.
“Finding such a clear difference between the kind of messages posted by highly and lowly retweeted users was surprising,” Martin-Gutierrez told PsyPost. “Usually in these kind of real-world social studies statistics are not so clear-cut. Our results however show that while users with a low average retweet count post positive in-party messages and negative out-party messages at a similar rate, users with a high average retweet count post almost exclusively positive in-party messages.”
Another key finding was that the rise of new political parties, such as the far-right Vox, contributed to the creation of more ideologically homogeneous online communities. As these parties gained prominence, Twitter users became more likely to cluster into groups that primarily engaged with like-minded individuals. However, even within these more radical groups, positive in-party messages were more successful at spreading than negative out-party messages.
“The most relevant result is that this notion that hateful messages spread further seems to be misguided. Instead, we found that users with high average retweet counts posted mostly positive messages reinforcing their party affiliation,” Martin-Gutierrez said.
“But beyond that, we realized that the concept of an echo chamber does not fully capture the way online political communities are structured. Users in an echo chamber are not only isolated from outside information, but also actively discredit and exclude outside sources. Considering our results, we need to consider the concept of an epistemic bubble, where people are only exposed to information that aligns with their existing beliefs, without necessarily attacking out-group members. In a nutshell, we find that in a political environment epistemic bubbles are efficient in spreading messages online but echo chambers are not.”
While the study provides valuable insights into how partisan content spreads on social media, it also has several limitations. First, the study focused solely on Twitter, which is just one of many social media platforms. The dynamics observed on Twitter may not be the same on other platforms like Facebook or Instagram, where users may engage with political content differently.
Another limitation is the focus on retweets as a measure of influence. While retweeting is an important way that information spreads on Twitter, it is not the only form of engagement. Users may also like, comment on, or share tweets privately through direct messages, and these forms of engagement were not captured in the study.
“We can’t establish a clear causal direction between message popularity and message content: do popular users post more positive messages, or are the positive messages making users popular (and vice versa for negative messages)?” Martin-Gutierrez said.
The study also simplified the ideological landscape by grouping political parties into left- and right-wing blocks. This approach may have overlooked important nuances in how users engage with specific political ideologies, especially in a multiparty system like Spain’s.
“Although this simplification is widely used, multiparty democracies are typically multidimensional, such that additional axes are required to fully characterize this ideological space and enable the distinction between parties of a similar ideology,” Martin-Gutierrez noted. “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2023.113244) We addressed this question in another paper.”
Looking ahead, future research could also explore how the findings from this study apply in other countries with different political systems and social media usage patterns. While the Spanish context provided a useful case for studying political polarization, it is not clear whether these patterns would hold in other contexts, such as the United States or the United Kingdom.
“My long-term goal for this research line is to go beyond the diagnosis of polarization to understand its structural causes using data and quantitative methods,” Martin-Gutierrez said. “I’m interested in understanding how an initially unpolarized society may transition into a polarized one.”
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-65688-9) In-party love spreads more efficiently than out-party hate in online communities,” was authored by Samuel Martin-Gutierrez, José Manuel Robles Morales, Mariano Torcal, Juan Carlos Losada, and Rosa María Benito.

(https://www.psypost.org/compatibility-between-scientific-and-religious-beliefs-in-a-country-is-associated-with-better-well-being-study-finds/) Compatibility between scientific and religious beliefs in a country is associated with better well-being, study finds
Oct 6th 2024, 08:00

A study involving tens of thousands of participants from 54 countries found that higher levels of compatibility between religious and scientific beliefs tend to be associated with better well-being. In some regions, pro-science beliefs were also stronger. The research was published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2024.2363773) Religion, Brain & Behavior.
Scientific studies generally indicate that people who hold religious or spiritual (R/S) beliefs tend to experience higher levels of well-being (i.e., better physical and mental health) compared to individuals without those beliefs. A growing number of studies also suggest that people who hold pro-science beliefs tend to experience better well-being.
However, religious and scientific beliefs may not always be compatible. The relationship between these beliefs varies across societies and individuals. Some view them as conflicting due to differences in explaining the natural world, while others see them as complementary, each addressing different aspects of human experience. Historically, there has been tension between the two, but many individuals and traditions integrate both perspectives, allowing for the coexistence of faith and empirical inquiry.
Study authors Michael E. Price and Dominic D. P. Johnson investigated the relationship between R/S beliefs, pro-science beliefs, and well-being, as well as the relationship between the compatibility of religious and scientific beliefs and well-being. They hypothesized that in Western societies, both belief systems would positively relate to well-being, but people would perceive these two systems as incompatible.
The researchers analyzed data from a large cross-sectional survey conducted between December 2021 and August 2022 via Qualtrics. Qualtrics oversaw data collection, with at least 1,000 participants from each of the 54 countries. The sample included countries from all continents (except Antarctica, which has no countries).
In total, 55,230 participants completed the survey. Of these, 49% were female, 50% were male, and a small remaining share did not specify their gender. On average, participants were in their 30s, though adults of all ages were included.
The survey included assessments of belief in a higher plan (the belief that one’s life follows a plan devised by a higher power to serve one’s long-term interest), well-being (defined as optimism and a sense of purpose in life), pro-science beliefs (e.g., “I am a strong believer in the power of science to reveal the truth about the world” or “I have less respect for science than most people in my society”), and belief group affiliation. Participants were grouped into categories such as atheist, Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, Folk/Indigenous/Traditional, Hindu, Jewish, Taoist, other, and those unsure of their beliefs.
Results showed that individuals affiliated with one of the religious groups were more likely to believe in a higher plan compared to those unsure of their beliefs or atheists. In Western societies, belief in a higher plan and pro-science attitudes tended to be negatively associated. However, in African and Asian regions, there was no significant relationship between belief in a higher plan and pro-science beliefs. Belief in a higher plan was strongest among Muslims, Hindus, and Jews, and slightly lower among followers of other religions. It was visibly lower among atheists.
Across the regions and belief groups studied, belief in a higher plan was strongly associated with well-being—those who believed more in a higher plan tended to have better well-being compared to those who did not. Pro-science beliefs were also positively associated with well-being, though the association was not strong enough to definitively conclude that it was not coincidental.
Higher levels of compatibility between scientific and religious beliefs were associated with better well-being; in regions where compatibility was higher, individuals tended to report better well-being. Compatibility between scientific and religious beliefs was highest in Southern Asia and Northern Africa, and lowest in North America and Northern Europe.
“We hope our study will stimulate increased consideration of belief system compatibility as a predictor, and possible cause, of enhanced well-being. If causation could be demonstrated, then the perceived incompatibility between R/S [religious/spiritual] and pro-science belief systems would become not just a matter of academic or cultural debate, but an issue with important repercussions for psychological well-being and, therefore, public health,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the link between personal beliefs and well-being, both at the individual and societal levels. However, it should be noted that the study was conducted on samples of online participants, which might not fully represent the general populations of the countries involved.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2024.2363773) Science and religion around the world: compatibility between belief systems predicts increased well-being,” was authored by Michael E. Price and Dominic D. P. Johnson.

(https://www.psypost.org/siblings-of-autistic-children-face-sevenfold-increased-risk-of-autism/) Siblings of autistic children face sevenfold increased risk of autism
Oct 6th 2024, 06:00

Researchers from the UC Davis MIND Institute and the Baby Siblings Research Consortium have found that siblings of autistic children have a significantly higher chance of being diagnosed with autism compared to the general population. The study, published in (https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-065297) Pediatrics, determined that about 20% of later-born siblings in families with an autistic child are diagnosed with autism themselves, a rate roughly seven times higher than that of children without autistic siblings.
Autism spectrum disorder is a complex developmental condition that affects communication, behavior, and social interaction. Families with an autistic child often want to know the chances that a future sibling will also have the condition, especially given the significant life changes that come with managing the diagnosis.
The researchers were motivated by the increasing prevalence of autism diagnoses in the general population—rising from about 1 in 110 children in 2011 to 1 in 36 today. This spike raised the question of whether similar trends might influence the recurrence of autism within families, where genetic and environmental factors could play a larger role.
In 2011, a study led by the same research group found that 18.7% of younger siblings of autistic children were later diagnosed with autism. Over the past decade, advances in diagnostic criteria and greater awareness of autism, especially among girls and cognitively able children, have led to increased identification. The researchers wanted to update their previous estimates to reflect these changes.
“Our team previously found that autism is more likely to recur in a family that already has a child with the condition than a family that doesn’t have a child with autism (about 2.5% risk). Since our initial report in 2011, the ASD general population prevalence rate has almost doubled and we were curious whether the same factors operating to increase prevalence (e.g., improved awareness, broader diagnostic criteria, etc.) might have also affected the likelihood of recurrence within a family,” explained study author Sally Ozonoff, a distinguished professor at UC Davis and principal investigator of the (https://health.ucdavis.edu/mind-institute/research/early-detection/) Early Detection Lab.
In the new study, the research team analyzed data collected from 18 different research sites worldwide, all part of the Baby Siblings Research Consortium, an international network of autism researchers. This study followed 1,605 infants born into families that already had one or more autistic children. These infants were recruited between 2010 and 2019 and were followed until they were 3 to 5 years old, which is the typical age range when autism symptoms begin to emerge and can be formally diagnosed.
To ensure consistency in diagnosis, each research site used the same assessment tools: the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-2) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) criteria. These tools are considered reliable for identifying autism. In addition to assessing whether these children developed autism, the researchers collected data on their developmental progress using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL), which measures cognitive, motor, and language skills.
Key demographic data were also gathered from the families, including information on race, parental education levels, and family structure (e.g., whether the family had one or more autistic children). These factors were included to better understand how they might influence the likelihood of an autism diagnosis in younger siblings.
The study confirmed that the recurrence rate of autism in families remained high, with 20.2% of younger siblings of autistic children receiving an autism diagnosis. This rate is significantly higher than the general population’s autism diagnosis rate, which is about 2.5%. Although the overall recurrence rate was slightly higher than the 18.7% reported in 2011, the increase was not statistically significant, suggesting that despite the rising population prevalence of autism, the likelihood of autism recurring within families has remained relatively stable.
“We replicated the previous finding that the familial recurrence rate is about 20%,” Ozonoff told PsyPost. “In 2011, we found a rate of 18.7%, which is not statistically different. The current sample was much larger and more diverse, giving greater reliability to the finding. The stability of the findings over more than a decade should reassure families and clinicians that the 1-in-5 likelihood of having another child with ASD is a reliable rate.”
“This reinforces the notion that autism runs in families, likely due to genetic causes. Given the elevated likelihood that a younger sibling will develop ASD, close developmental surveillance and prompt referrals are warranted. This was the conclusion of our 2011 paper as well but not necessarily followed in practice yet. Providers need to carefully monitor the development of all younger siblings of autistic children.”
One key finding was that the recurrence rate varied based on certain factors. For instance, male infants in these families were more likely to be diagnosed with autism than female infants—25.3% of boys were diagnosed compared to only 13.1% of girls. This aligns with broader autism research, which consistently shows that boys are more likely than girls to be diagnosed with autism.
However, the study found that girls from families with more than one autistic sibling (known as multiplex families) had a much higher risk of autism compared to girls from families with only one autistic child. In multiplex families, the autism recurrence rate for girls was 39.5%, compared to 12.6% in simplex families (those with only one autistic child).
Interestingly, the sex of the older autistic child (known as the proband) also influenced recurrence rates. Families with an autistic daughter had a recurrence rate of 34.7%, whereas families with an autistic son had a recurrence rate of 22.5%. This supports the theory that girls may require a greater number of genetic or environmental risk factors to develop autism, a phenomenon known as the female protective effect.
Another important finding was the impact of race and maternal education on recurrence rates. The study showed that autism recurrence was higher in families of non-white infants (24.3%) compared to white infants (17.4%). Additionally, maternal education was found to be a predictor of recurrence: children whose mothers had less than a college education were more likely to be diagnosed with autism than those whose mothers had higher educational attainment.
“We found that the race of the family affected the likelihood that they would have another child with the autism,” Ozonoff said. “The recurrence rate in White families was 18% while the recurrence rate in families of color was significantly higher, 25%. We also found that recurrence likelihood was affected by the educational attainment in the family.”
“These are new and surprising findings, so it is critical that they are replicated by an independent research team. If replicated, these findings may indicate that there are social factors and social determinants of health that could lead to higher rates of autism in families who experience adversities (systemic racism, economic disadvantage, etc.).”
The study also highlighted the need for more research into the interaction between genetic and environmental factors in autism. For example, why do girls in multiplex families face such a high risk of developing autism? More research into the genetic underpinnings of autism could help answer this question and provide clearer guidance for families.
The Autism Science Foundation was one of several organizations that funded this study. Alycia Halladay, the foundation’s chief science officer and program officer for the Baby Siblings Research Consortium, emphasized the importance of early monitoring, saying: “Given the increased risk to younger siblings, it is critical that subsequent children in families with a child diagnosed with ASD be closely monitored and referred promptly for diagnostic evaluation if early warning signs are present.
“Younger siblings who are male, have an affected female sibling, or multiple affected siblings should be very closely watched during early development. More must be done to ensure that infants with a higher likelihood of diagnosis receive continuous monitoring, especially those from economically disadvantaged communities.”
The study, “(https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/154/2/e2023065297/197777/Familial-Recurrence-of-Autism-Updates-From-the) Familial Recurrence of Autism: Updates From the Baby Siblings Research Consortium,” was authored by Sally Ozonoff, Gregory S. Young, Jessica Bradshaw, Tony Charman, Katarzyna Chawarska, Jana M. Iverson, Cheryl Klaiman, Rebecca J. Landa, Nicole McDonald, Daniel Messinger, Rebecca J. Schmidt, Carol L. Wilkinson, and Lonnie Zwaigenbaum.

(https://www.psypost.org/addiction-prone-individuals-excel-at-generating-creative-ideas-but-struggle-with-selecting-the-best-ones/) Addiction-prone individuals excel at generating creative ideas but struggle with selecting the best ones
Oct 5th 2024, 16:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221137239) Psychological Reports sheds light on the complex relationship between addiction-prone personalities and creative thinking. The research found that individuals with a tendency toward addictive behaviors are more likely to generate a large number of ideas but struggle when it comes to selecting the best ones. The study also discovered that novelty seeking plays a key role in mediating this relationship, and that depressive tendencies can further influence how addiction-prone individuals approach creativity.
Prior research has shown that certain personality characteristics, such as openness to experience and nonconformity, are linked to creativity. However, few studies have focused on how addiction-prone personality traits might affect creative cognitive styles like idea generation and idea selection.
An addiction-prone personality is typically associated with traits such as impulsiveness and a propensity for risk-taking, characteristics that are also sometimes linked to creativity. Yet the exact mechanism by which these traits influence creativity, particularly in terms of generating and selecting ideas, remains unclear.
Additionally, the researchers wanted to explore the role of novelty seeking—a desire for new experiences—and how depressive tendencies might modify these relationships. Since college students are at a critical age for both creativity and vulnerability to addiction, they were chosen as the focus group for this study.
To conduct the study, the researchers recruited 576 university students from China, aged between 17 and 22. These students completed several self-report questionnaires designed to measure their addiction-prone personality traits, novelty seeking tendencies, creative cognitive styles (idea generation and idea selection), and depressive symptoms.
The primary tool for assessing addiction proneness was the Addiction-Prone Personality Scale, which evaluates traits such as impulsivity and risk-taking. Novelty seeking was measured using the Novelty Seeking Scale, while the Generation and Selection Questionnaire assessed how frequently participants generated new ideas and how often they were able to select the best ones. Finally, depressive symptoms were measured using the Beck Depression Inventory-II, which is widely used to assess the severity of depression.
The researchers found that addiction-prone personality traits were associated with a higher capacity for idea generation but a lower ability to select the most appropriate or useful ideas. In other words, individuals with addiction-prone traits excelled in coming up with many creative ideas but struggled to filter through them effectively.
Novelty seeking partially explained this relationship. Addiction-prone individuals were more likely to seek out new experiences, which helped them generate more ideas. However, novelty seeking had a suppressing effect on idea selection, meaning that those who were more inclined to explore new ideas were less effective at choosing the best ones.
Finally, the study found that depressive tendencies moderated these relationships. Individuals with higher levels of depression were less likely to engage in novelty seeking, which in turn reduced their ability to generate creative ideas. At the same time, for those with higher depressive symptoms, the link between addiction-prone personality traits and creativity became weaker. Essentially, depression diminished the effects of addiction-prone traits on both novelty seeking and creativity.
The study provided insights into the relationship between addiction-prone personality traits and creativity, but it also had several limitations. First, the study was conducted on a sample of university students in China, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other age groups or cultural contexts.
In addition, the study was cross-sectional, meaning that it only captured a snapshot in time. This makes it difficult to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. Longitudinal studies, which follow participants over time, could provide more insight into how addiction-prone personality traits influence creative thinking as individuals age or as their symptoms change.
The study, “(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00332941221137239) Addiction-Prone Personality and Creative Cognitive Styles: A Moderated Mediation Model of Novelty Seeking and Depression Tendency,” was authored by Yadan Li, Lingling Zhang, Yilong Yang, Shuoqi Xiang, and Weiping Hu.

(https://www.psypost.org/obamas-2012-reelection-linked-to-surprising-divergence-in-mental-health-among-black-men/) Obama’s 2012 reelection linked to surprising divergence in mental health among Black men
Oct 5th 2024, 14:00

A recent study published in the journal (https://journals.sagepub.com/eprint/6GHBFCV4J2EKZKMP7G9S/full) Sociology of Race and Ethnicity reveals that Barack Obama’s reelection in 2012 had a significant impact on the mental health of Black men, though the effects were different depending on their level of education. College-educated Black men experienced improved mental health following Obama’s victory, while those without a college education reported a decline in their mental health during the same period.
The researchers, led by (https://profiles.rice.edu/faculty/tony-n-brown) Tony Brown, a distinguished sociology professor at Rice University, set out to investigate how Obama’s reelection influenced the mental health of Black men and women. This study builds on (https://journals.sagepub.com/eprint/6GHBFCV4J2EKZKMP7G9S/full) their earlier research into the mental health effects of Obama’s initial election in 2008, which showed that Black men reported fewer days of poor mental health after his victory. However, Brown and his team wanted to understand whether the optimism surrounding Obama’s first election still resonated four years later, particularly among Black men.
“The topic interests me because most individuals agree Barack Obama’s presidency was a milestone moment in U.S. politics and history,” said Brown, the director of the (https://rare.rice.edu/) Racism and Racial Experiences (RARE) Workgroup.
“But increasingly, I think most individuals disagree about whether his presidency represented real racial progress or was simply an optical illusion. The topic also interests me because too often social science research focuses on the consequences of structural racism, whereas Obama’s presidency supposedly represented a challenge to structural racism.”
For their study, the researchers analyzed data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, a large, nationally representative survey that collects health-related data from over 400,000 U.S. adults each year. They focused on a sample of 5,521 Black adults surveyed 30 days before and after Obama’s reelection in 2012. The researchers measured the number of poor mental health days respondents reported experiencing during the past 30 days, comparing the periods before and after the election to assess any shifts in mental health.
In addition to mental health outcomes, the study took into account various factors that could influence these outcomes, such as income, education level, gender, and whether the participant lived in a state where Obama won or lost the majority of votes. By controlling for these variables, the researchers aimed to isolate the effects of the reelection itself.
The researchers found that college-educated Black men saw a significant improvement in their mental health, with nearly three fewer poor mental health days reported per month after the election. In contrast, Black men without a college education reported experiencing one additional poor mental health day per month.
The researchers propose several reasons for this divergence. One possibility is that less-educated Black men felt Obama had not lived up to the promises he made during his campaign. These men may have expected Obama to tackle issues like job creation, healthcare access, and systemic inequality more effectively. As these promises went unfulfilled in their eyes, their mental health may have worsened due to feelings of disappointment or relative deprivation—a sense that they were being left behind compared to other groups, including more affluent or educated Black men.
“The average person should consider how elections influence their mental health,” Brown told PsyPost. “Elections can demonstrate health significance. Maybe it’s the stress that political polarization induces. Maybe it’s the thrill when the candidate you support wins. Maybe it’s how people in your local community came together to register others to vote.”
“Social scientists must think more critically about how large-scale socio-political events, like elections, influence individuals’ health. I think the 2024 U.S. presidential election, regardless of which candidate wins, will show mental health significance.”
As for Black women, the study found no significant change in their mental health following Obama’s reelection. This mirrors the results of the earlier 2008 study, where Black women similarly did not experience a measurable mental health boost.
“Lack of a salubrious association between Barack Obama’s presidency and Black women’s mental health surprised me,” Brown said. “In this study and a prior study, it seems only Black men experienced changes in their mental health because of Barack Obama’s 2008 and 2012 election and re-election, respectively.”
Several factors could explain this. For instance, the researchers noted that Black women may have worried about the potential dangers Obama and his family faced during his presidency, particularly the numerous death threats he received. Black women may also have felt uncertain about whether Obama’s presidency would address their specific struggles with both racism and sexism.
“The long-term goals of this line of research are to broaden the notion of social determinants of health to include socio-political shifts, such as elections,” Brown explained. “Far too often, social scientists obsess over micro-level events that influence health, but macro-level events matter too. Consider how Haitian immigrants, who are documented and working hard to build local economies, feel when a U.S. president suggests they are eating the cats and dogs of their neighbors and co-workers. That’s not a micro-level threat, but an insult that must be situated in sociological context.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649220911387) ‘Yes We Can!’ The Mental Health Significance for U.S. Black Adults of Barack Obama’s 2008 Presidential Election,” was authored by Tony N. Brown, Alexa Solazzo, and Bridget K. Gorman.

(https://www.psypost.org/do-cats-play-fetch-here-is-what-the-science-says/) Do cats play fetch? Here is what the science says
Oct 5th 2024, 12:00

Many people have seen dogs fetch, but cats like to get into the game too. Despite their very different hunting and play styles, fetching appears to combine elements of predatory and social behavior for both species.
Although their domestication histories and natural behaviors are very different, cats and dogs share many similarities. Both species are predators, live closely with humans and are capable of enjoying rich social experiences with us.
In our (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309068) newly published study, we found that more than 40% of cats described in our survey data played fetch, compared with almost 80% of dogs. We also outlined several possible reasons for fetching, including play, selection during domestication, and learning effects.
Scant research
(https://vet.purdue.edu/discovery/croney/index.php) Our research group sat up and took note when British researchers published a study in 2023 that explored some (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47409-w) key characteristics of fetching in cats. The scientists surveyed 924 owners of cats that fetched, and they found that the cats would retrieve a wide variety of objects, from pet toys and balls of paper to pens, bottle caps (https://people.com/pets/cat-steals-shoes-owner-made-facebook-group-to-return-shoes/) and even shoes.
Perhaps most intriguing was the fact that the cats generally were not trained to fetch – they offered the behavior spontaneously. Cats also preferred to be the one to start the fetch game and were more likely to play when they brought a toy to their human, rather than the human tossing a toy.
Prior to this study, fetching behavior in cats hadn’t received much scientific attention. But because this review surveyed only owners of cats that fetched, there was no way to compare those animals with cats that didn’t. We wondered whether there was something about the cats themselves that made some more likely to fetch than others.
And what about dogs? Fetching is one of the (https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00078-7) most common forms of play between dogs and humans. Many dogs have been bred and selected specifically for assisting human hunts by (https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/dog-breeds/best-dog-breeds-for-hunting/) retrieving prey. We expected to find abundant research about fetching behavior in dogs, but we learned that it was rarely addressed in dog behavior studies.
Fluffy, get the ball!
To help fill this gap, our group teamed with (https://www.vet.upenn.edu/people/faculty-clinician-search/JAMESSERPELL) University of Pennsylvania researcher James Serpell, who developed two survey-based tools to assess dog and cat behavior. The surveys include basic questions about each animal’s breed, age and living environment, followed by dozens of questions about their behavior, including traits such as predatory behavior, sociability with humans, activity level and fearfulness. Both surveys also included questions about fetching.
Using these survey results, we analyzed data from thousands of cat and dog owners to explore just how common fetching is and what characteristics of a cat or dog and their environment are likely to predict fetching.
We found that fetching was much more common in cats than we anticipated. Over 40% of cat owners had a cat that “sometimes, usually, or always” fetched. For comparison, we also provided the first estimate of the prevalence of fetching behavior in dogs. Almost 78% of dogs represented in the data were reported to fetch.
Interestingly, being male was associated with increased fetching in both species. Being older and having health problems decreased the likelihood that either cats or dogs would be fetchers. And for both species, sharing a home with a dog also made the animal represented in the survey less likely to fetch.
There were breed differences too, especially among dogs. Breeds known for being responsive to human instructions and taking interest in toys, such as (https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/german-shepherd-dog/) German shepherd dogs, (https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/golden-retriever/) golden retrievers and (https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/labrador-retriever/) Labrador retrievers, were among the most likely breeds to fetch. In contrast, hounds and livestock guard dogs were among those least likely to fetch.
Fetching was correlated with trainability in dogs, regardless of breed, pointing to the potential importance of early selection of dogs to be human helpers, (http://dx.doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.002) long before we started developing dog breeds.
There are far fewer breeds of cats than dogs, and fewer purebred cats were represented in our study compared with dogs. Still, we also found breed differences among cats. (https://cfa.org/breed/siamese/) Siamese, (https://cfa.org/tonkinese-article/) Tonkinese, (https://cfa.org/burmese-article/) Burmese and (https://cfa.org/breed/bengal/) Bengals were the most likely cats to fetch.
Fetching was correlated with activity level: Cats that were more likely to run, jump, engage with new items in the home and initiate play with their owners were also more likely to fetch.
>From hunting to playing catch
The roots of fetching behavior lie in both species’ hunting practices. Cats are known as stalk-and-rush hunters, meaning that they sneak up on their prey and (https://www.felidae.org/KNOWELLPUBL/Prelims.pdf) pounce at an opportune moment. Dogs are believed to be pursuit predators that (https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.1995.9522969) chase prey over longer distances.
Development of breeds has altered dogs’ typical predatory behavior sequence, which goes like this: orient, eye, stalk, chase, grab-bite, kill-bite. Dog breeds that have been bred for exaggerated or increased “chase and/or grab-bite” behavior – such as pointers and retrievers – are more likely to fetch and less likely to complete the predatory sequence and “kill-bite.”
But both cats and dogs will carry prey items away from the kill site, which may also partially explain how a behavior such as fetch could arise.
Although cats often are viewed as independent and aloof, recent studies have found that cats can (http://dx.doi.org/%2010.1016/j.cub.2019.08.036) show attachment to humans, (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0832-2) pick up social cues from humans and even (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0620-4) recognize their owner’s voice. We hope that our study further encourages people to understand that cats are capable of loving relationships with humans, especially when these popular pets are well socialized and provided with an enriched and safe environment. Including fetching, if your cat is so inclined.
For all of the differences between dogs and cats, we think it’s charming that they have converged on a similar behavior – fetching. Fetching also highlights the effect of the human-animal relationship. Humans clearly play an important role in fetching behavior, even if dogs and cats simply perceive us as the thing that makes the toy move so they can chase it.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/cats-and-dogs-both-like-to-play-fetch-its-rooted-in-their-hunting-instincts-237926) original article.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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