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PsyPost – Psychology News Daily Digest (Unofficial)

 

(https://www.psypost.org/young-children-anticipate-actions-through-mirror-neuron-system-by-age-three/) Young children anticipate actions through mirror neuron system by age three
Oct 5th 2024, 10:00

A recent study has found that by the age of three, children are already able to understand the intentions behind other people’s actions, thanks to a sophisticated neural system involving mirror neurons. This system allows young children to mimic and anticipate the actions of others, laying the foundation for more complex social understanding as they grow older. The findings were published in the (https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2317653121) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and highlight the early development of this cognitive ability, which is vital for social interactions.
Previous studies had shown that adults and older children possess mirror neurons, a type of brain cell that activates both when a person performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. This activation is thought to be key to understanding the intentions behind actions.
What was unclear, however, was whether very young children also have this ability and, if so, how early it develops. The study focused on preschoolers, aged three to six, to investigate whether these children already demonstrate the ability to recognize and anticipate others’ intentions through the activation of mirror neurons.
“The interest in this topic arises from the combination of my education in neuroscience and my subsequent professional experience in developmental psychology. This multidisciplinary approach, shaped by my diverse background in both fields, allows me to envision a functional developmental connection that begins with how a child understands the world from birth, largely through motor experiences — both in relation to their environment and, crucially, to their caregiver,” said study author (https://docenti.unicatt.it/ppd2/it/docenti/40411/cinzia-di-dio) Cinzia Di Dio, an associate professor at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart and co-head of the Research Unit in Psychology and Robotics in the Lifespan (PsyRoLife).
“This initial understanding, conveyed through the body and its movements, leads to emotional synchronization and recognition, a phenomenon elegantly explained by the discovery of the mirror neuron system. The development of social skills, which evolves alongside cognitive growth, has been explored across various disciplines but often remains fragmented.”
“The developmental steps that take a child from ‘feeling’ a relationship to ‘understanding’ it are still not fully understood. This study offers an opportunity to shed light on the progression of more sophisticated social skills, such as the ability to understand others’ mental contents like intentions, desires, beliefs, and emotions—what we refer to as mentalizing—likely grounded in a motor-based understanding of others’ actions, intentions, and emotions.”
The study involved 18 preschool children between the ages of 3 and 6 years. These children were recruited from two kindergartens in Italy. With parental consent, the researchers conducted a series of experiments to measure how the children’s muscles responded when they either performed or observed certain actions.
The researchers focused on the mylohyoid muscle, which plays a key role in mouth movement and is commonly activated during actions like eating. While previous studies in adults and older children have confirmed the involvement of mirror neurons using more advanced techniques, it’s not possible to directly measure their activity in young children without invasive procedures. Instead, recording muscle responses can provide important indirect evidence, as these responses are closely linked to motor planning and intention, which mirror neurons are thought to influence.
The study was divided into two main conditions: action execution and action observation. In the action execution condition, children were asked to perform two distinct tasks: picking up a piece of food and bringing it to their mouth (grasping-to-eat) or picking up a piece of paper and placing it into a container (grasping-to-place).
These tasks were chosen based on prior research that showed mirror neurons fire differently depending on the goal of the action, such as eating versus placing, even when the physical movement is similar. Both tasks were repeated multiple times, and the children’s muscle activity was recorded using surface electrodes placed under their chins.
In the action observation condition, the children watched as an experimenter performed the same two tasks—either grasping food to eat or grasping paper to place into a container. The children’s muscle activity was again recorded to see if their brains “mirrored” the observed actions.
The researchers found that even at such a young age, children showed distinct patterns of muscle activation when either performing or observing these tasks. In particular, there was greater activation in the mylohyoid muscle during the grasping-to-eat task than during the grasping-to-place task. This was true for both conditions: when the children performed the actions themselves and when they merely observed someone else doing them.
This muscle activation suggests that their brains were simulating the observed action as if they were performing it. This is a hallmark of how mirror neurons are believed to work: the brain essentially “mirrors” the actions it sees, preparing the body to perform those same actions if necessary.
“Our findings highlight the gradual transition in socio-cognitive abilities that allow us to become competent social beings,” Di Dio told PsyPost. “This process begins with basic bodily/motor experiences, which later evolve into more complex mental functions. It’s important to foster this bodily communication effectively from birth to prevent deviations from typical development, which can lead to social and psychological challenges later in life, both in adolescence and adulthood. By understanding the developmental stages of this growth, we can more accurately identify early warning signs of atypical development and intervene in a timely manner.”
The researchers noticed that the muscle activation started even before the children or the experimenter actually grasped the object. For instance, in the grasping-to-eat condition, the children’s mylohyoid muscles began to activate during the reaching phase, long before the food reached their mouths. This anticipatory activation is a sign that the children’s brains were already preparing for the goal of the action—eating—well before the action was completed.
This early activation also occurred during the observation condition, although the response was slightly delayed compared to older children studied in previous research. The researchers suggest that while the ability to understand and anticipate others’ intentions is present in preschoolers, it may not be as fully developed as in older children.
“We hypothesized an activation of the ‘intentional’ motor system and the findings aligned with our expectations,” Di Dio said. “However, what was particularly interesting was discovering that preschoolers are still in the process of refining their ability to understand motor intentions. This likely explains why the ability to fully grasp others’ intentions, along with more sophisticated skills like mentalization, begins to explicitly emerge around the ages of 4-5.”
But as with all research, there are some caveats to consider. “In science, it’s crucial to be cautious in interpreting data and avoid overgeneralizing results, which can lead to confusion,” Di Dio noted. “For instance, we must be careful not to automatically equate understanding motor intentions with understanding intentions in a broader sense. Motor intention understanding refers to a basic level, such as seeing someone grab a glass and understanding they want to drink.”
“However, full comprehension involves a more nuanced understanding of behavior—like realizing someone is drinking because they are at a pub enjoying time with friends. This higher-level understanding requires additional cognitive processing, which likely develops later. As Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia (2007) explain, this distinction is key. Therefore, while we should aim to extract valuable insights from the data, it’s essential to approach conclusions with caution and recognize the need for further research.”
The researchers also noted that it would be interesting to investigate how this system develops in children with autism, who often have difficulties with social understanding. By studying the mirror neuron system in these children, researchers might be able to identify early markers for social cognitive deficits, potentially leading to earlier diagnosis and intervention.
“My long-term goals for this line of research include lowering the age of participants to study earlier developmental stages and expanding the research to include cases of autism spectrum disorder, with the aim of promoting early diagnosis,” Di Dio explained. “This could help identify atypical developmental patterns at an earlier stage, improving intervention outcomes.”
“Additionally, I am interested in exploring the use of robotic agents in social interactions to better understand how the mirror neuron system responds in these contexts. This could open new pathways for understanding motor intention recognition and social cognition in both typical and atypical development.”
The study, “(https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2317653121) Action chains and intention understanding in 3- to 6-year-old children,” was authored by Cinzia Di Dio, Laura Miraglia, Giulia Peretti, Antonella Marchetti, and Giacomo Rizzolatti.

(https://www.psypost.org/ai-revolution-or-ethical-dilemma-what-4-2-million-tweets-reveal-about-public-perception-of-chatgpt/) AI revolution or ethical dilemma? What 4.2 million tweets reveal about public perception of ChatGPT
Oct 5th 2024, 08:00

An analysis of millions of English-language tweets discussing ChatGPT in the first three months after its launch revealed that while the general public expressed excitement over this powerful new tool, there was also concern about its potential for misuse. Negative opinions raised questions about its credibility, possible biases, ethical issues, and concerns related to the employment rights of data annotators and programmers. On the other hand, positive views highlighted excitement about its potential use in various fields. The paper was published in (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296882) PLOS ONE.
ChatGPT is an advanced AI language model developed by OpenAI, designed to understand and generate human-like text based on user input. It was introduced to the public in November 2022 as part of the GPT-3.5 architecture and later enhanced with versions like GPT-4. ChatGPT can perform various tasks, such as answering questions, providing explanations, generating text, offering advice, and assisting with problem-solving. It uses deep learning techniques to predict the most relevant responses, enabling it to engage in interactive conversations on a wide range of topics. The model was trained on large datasets, including books, articles, and online content, which allow it to generate coherent and contextually appropriate responses.
While useful in many areas, ChatGPT has limitations, such as occasionally providing inaccurate or biased information or generating completely fabricated responses (known as AI hallucinations). It has been applied in diverse fields, such as education, customer service, and content creation.
When ChatGPT was first introduced, its popularity soared, with its user base reaching 100 million individuals in the first month. Since then, many new AI language models have been developed by various companies. However, it could be argued that ChatGPT sparked the AI revolution in the workplace, generating widespread discussions about AI and prompting people to form varied opinions about its impact.
Researchers Reuben Ng and Ting Yu Joanne Chow aimed to analyze the enthusiasm and emotions surrounding the initial public perceptions of ChatGPT. They examined a dataset containing 4.2 million tweets that mentioned ChatGPT as a keyword, published between December 1, 2022, and March 1, 2023—essentially, the first three months after ChatGPT’s launch. The researchers sought to identify the issues and themes most frequently discussed and the most commonly used keywords and sentiments in tweets about ChatGPT.
The study analyzed the dataset in two ways. First, the researchers focused on identifying significant spikes in Twitter activity, or periods when the number of tweets, replies, and retweets about ChatGPT was notably high, and they analyzed what users were saying during those times. They collected and analyzed the top 100 most-engaged tweets from these periods. Second, they identified the top keywords each week that expressed positive, neutral, or negative sentiments about ChatGPT.
The results showed that there were 23 peaks in Twitter activity during the study period. The first peak occurred when ChatGPT surpassed 5 million users just five days after its launch, reflecting both the initial buzz and hesitancy surrounding the new tool. The second peak was primarily focused on discussions about ChatGPT’s potential uses. Subsequent peaks explored its utility in academic settings, detection of bias, philosophical thought experiments, discussions of its moral permissibility, and its role as a mirror to humanity.
The analysis of keywords revealed that the most frequent negative terms expressed concerns about ChatGPT’s credibility (e.g., hallucinated, crazy loop, cognitive dissonance, limited knowledge, simple mistakes, overconfidence, misleading), implicit bias in generated responses (e.g., bias, misleading, political bias, wing bias, religious bias), environmental ethics (e.g., fossil fuels), the employment rights of data annotators (e.g., outsourced workers, investigation), and adjacent debates about whether using a neural network trained on existing human works is ethical (e.g., stolen artwork, minimal effort).
Positive and neutral keywords expressed excitement about the general possibilities (e.g., huge breakthrough, biggest tech innovation), particularly in coding (e.g., good debugging companion, insanely useful, code), as a creative tool (e.g., content creation superpower, copywriters), in education (e.g., lesson plans, essays, undergraduate paper, academic purposes, grammar checker), and for personal use (e.g., workout plan, meal plan, calorie targets, personalized meeting templates).
“Overall, sentiments and themes were double-edged, expressing excitement over this powerful new tool and wariness toward its potential for misuse,” the study authors concluded.
The study provides an interesting historical analysis of public discourse about ChatGPT. However, it is worth noting that the study focused solely on English-language tweets, while much of the broader discussion occurred outside of Twitter and in non-English languages.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296882) Powerful tool or too powerful? Early public discourse about ChatGPT across 4 million tweets,” was authored by Reuben Ng and Ting Yu Joanne Chow.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-uncover-disturbing-effect-of-testosterone-on-mens-view-of-conservatively-dressed-women/) Scientists uncover disturbing effect of testosterone on men’s view of conservatively dressed women
Oct 5th 2024, 06:00

A recent study published in (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030645302400218X) Psychoneuroendocrinology offers new insights into how testosterone influences men’s perceptions of women. While sexualized women are often dehumanized based on their appearance, the researchers discovered that elevated testosterone levels also lead men to dehumanize women dressed conservatively, even in the absence of sexualization cues. This finding highlights how physiological changes, such as increased testosterone, can alter the way men perceive women.
Dehumanization is a harmful process where individuals are stripped of qualities that make them uniquely human, such as emotions and moral capacity. Research has shown that sexualization plays a significant role in how people perceive women. Both men and women are more likely to dehumanize women who are sexualized by wearing revealing clothing.
However, little was known about whether physiological factors like testosterone could contribute to this behavior. Testosterone has been linked to social behaviors, including aggression and sexual impulsivity. Given that men’s testosterone levels increase after interacting with women or being exposed to sexual stimuli, the researchers wanted to explore whether a surge in testosterone could lead to dehumanization even without sexualization.
“Research in social psychology has shown that sexualized women are often dehumanized—meaning they are attributed fewer human qualities. This process can have extremely negative consequences for women’s wellbeing, because dehumanized women are more likely to become victims of sexual or physical aggression and are more likely to be victim-blamed as well,” explained study author (https://francescaluberti.com/) Francesca Luberti, who completed the research while a postdoctoral fellow at Nipissing University.
“Given these harmful outcomes, it’s important to understand the mechanisms that lead to the dehumanization of women. We were interested in contributing to this effort by investigating whether physiological factors, such as increases in testosterone levels, play a role in men’s dehumanization of sexualized and non-sexualized women.”
To investigate the relationship between testosterone and dehumanization, the researchers conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment. A total of 120 healthy young men between the ages of 18 and 38 were recruited for the study. Participants were either students or members of the community, and most identified as heterosexual. The researchers excluded participants with conditions or medications that could affect hormone levels, ensuring that the results would not be skewed by other variables.
The participants attended two experimental sessions, spaced two weeks apart. In one session, they received a dose of testosterone, while in the other, they received a placebo. The testosterone was administered via a nasal gel, which is known to raise testosterone levels quickly.
To measure how testosterone affected dehumanization, participants watched a video of a woman who was either dressed conservatively or in a more revealing, sexualized outfit. Each participant watched the same version of the video in both sessions. The woman in the video was filmed answering interview-style questions in a neutral manner, allowing the researchers to isolate the effects of testosterone and clothing style.
After watching the video, participants completed a series of tasks to assess different forms of dehumanization. First, they engaged in an emotion-based dehumanization task, where they rated the extent to which the woman could experience emotions that are either uniquely human, such as remorse and hope, or emotions shared with animals, like fear and excitement.
Next, they participated in a personality-based dehumanization task, where they evaluated the woman’s personality traits, distinguishing between traits that are uniquely human, such as openness to experience, and those common to both humans and animals, like neuroticism.
Finally, participants completed a perceptual dehumanization task, in which they were asked to recognize faces presented either upright or upside down. This task measured the degree to which they processed faces holistically (configurally) versus feature-by-feature, with less holistic processing indicating higher levels of dehumanization.
The researchers found that testosterone had a specific effect on emotion-based dehumanization. Men who took testosterone attributed fewer uniquely human emotions to the conservatively dressed woman compared to men who took the placebo. In other words, testosterone increased emotion-based dehumanization toward the conservatively dressed woman by reducing the extent to which men believed she could experience human-specific emotions, like hope and remorse.
Interestingly, the results for the sexualized woman were different. Men dehumanized the woman in the sexualized video regardless of whether they had received testosterone or the placebo. This suggests that the mere presence of sexualization cues was enough to trigger dehumanization in both conditions, and that testosterone did not exacerbate this effect.
“We were definitely surprised to find that testosterone did not further increase emotion-based dehumanization toward a sexualized woman, as we had predicted, but instead led to the emotion-based dehumanization of a non-sexualized woman,” Luberti told PsyPost.
The study did not find that personality traits or biological factors, such as the androgen receptor gene, moderated the effects of testosterone on dehumanization. This suggests that testosterone’s effects on dehumanization might be consistent across most men.
“We found that, if the target woman was sexualized, men engaged in emotion-based dehumanization toward her regardless of their testosterone levels, but if she was not sexualized, they only engaged in this form of dehumanization when their testosterone levels were elevated by a single dose of intranasal testosterone,” Luberti explained. “Based on these results, the takeaway message is that sexualization leads to emotion-based dehumanization toward a target woman, but heightened testosterone levels can trigger this type of dehumanization even in the absence of sexualization cues.”
In addition, testosterone did not affect the other two forms of dehumanization. Men’s ratings of the woman’s personality traits did not change based on the drug or the video they watched, meaning that testosterone did not influence personality-based dehumanization. Similarly, testosterone did not impact perceptual dehumanization, as men’s ability to recognize faces did not differ between the conditions.
“We also didn’t expect to find that testosterone and sexualization would affect emotion-based dehumanization but not personality-based and perceptual dehumanization,” Luberti told PsyPost. “These findings suggest that testosterone may have nuanced effects on dehumanization and that it may only contribute to certain forms of dehumanization toward women. Further research should investigate why that is the case.”
“Additionally, we did not measure other types of dehumanization, like attributions of agency, which researchers have often found to be affected by sexualization. It would be interesting to test whether testosterone influences these types of dehumanization as well. Lastly, I should note that the sample of this experiment mostly consisted of young, heterosexual men living in Canada, so one should be cautious about generalizing these findings to other populations.”
Overall, this research highlights a novel physiological mechanism contributing to dehumanization, but testosterone is only one piece of the puzzle. “While this experiment provides new evidence that testosterone may contribute to men’s emotion-based dehumanization of women, it is important to highlight the fact that testosterone is just one factor,” Luberti said. “To fully understand the mechanisms behind the dehumanization of women, it will be essential to consider how several physiological and socio-cultural factors interact with each other to shape this behavior.”
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030645302400218X) Testosterone rapidly increases men’s emotion-based dehumanization of a conservatively dressed woman,” was authored by Francesca R. Luberti, Valentina Proietti, Shawn N. Geniole, Brian M. Bird, Triana L. Ortiz, Neil V. Watson, Jessica Cearns, Bernard Goldfarb, and Justin M. Carré.

(https://www.psypost.org/this-common-workplace-phenomenon-could-be-secretly-undermining-your-productivity/) This common workplace phenomenon could be secretly undermining your productivity
Oct 4th 2024, 16:00

A recent study published in the (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2024-46948-001) Journal of Applied Psychology reveals that overhearing political conversations in the workplace can lead to negative emotional experiences for employees, particularly when they perceive their coworkers to have different political views. These overheard discussions can create emotional stress and distract employees, ultimately affecting their job satisfaction and ability to accomplish work goals. 
The workplace is a natural environment for political discussions, particularly during elections or politically charged times. However, while such conversations may be voluntary for participants, they often take place in public spaces, meaning others nearby may overhear them without wanting to engage. 
The researchers sought to understand how and why these “ambient political conversations” affect employees who are not directly involved in the discussions. While prior studies have largely focused on the direct participants in political conversations, this research aims to address the hidden costs for those who merely overhear these conversations in the workplace.
The researchers conducted three separate studies to investigate the effects of ambient political conversations on employees. The goal was to test two potential explanations for the impact of overhearing political conversations: whether these conversations induce stress and negative emotions or whether they distract employees, draining their cognitive resources.
In their initial study, the researchers recruited 263 full-time employees from Prolific, an online platform for research studies. The participants were asked to recall an episode in which they overheard coworkers discussing political issues, such as elections or political viewpoints, while at work. This method, known as a critical incident recall, allowed the participants to reflect on a specific event and provide detailed responses about how it made them feel.
After recalling the incident, participants reported their emotional reactions and feelings of cognitive depletion, which refers to the mental exhaustion that can come from trying to maintain focus or control thoughts. The researchers measured negative emotions (e.g., stress or frustration), positive emotions, and the degree to which participants felt mentally drained. Additionally, they compared the participants’ responses to a control group, which recalled non-political workplace conversations, such as discussions about work-related topics or personal matters.
The results of Study 1 revealed that overhearing political conversations had a noticeable impact on employees’ emotional states. Participants who recalled overhearing political discussions reported significantly higher levels of negative emotions, such as frustration and stress, compared to those in the control group. However, the researchers did not find strong evidence that these conversations caused mental exhaustion, as there were no significant differences in cognitive depletion between the political and non-political conversation groups.
The second study aimed to build on the findings of Study 1 by examining the longer-term effects of overhearing political conversations on employees’ daily job satisfaction and work goal progress. To achieve this, the researchers conducted a three-week experience sampling study with 127 full-time employees from a large Southern U.S. university. The study took place during the two weeks leading up to the 2018 midterm elections and the week of the elections.
Each day, participants completed multiple surveys at different times: one in the morning (start-of-day), one in the middle of the day, and one at the end of the workday. These surveys measured how often participants overheard political conversations, their emotional reactions (negative affect and cognitive depletion), and their progress toward work goals. Additionally, participants rated their job satisfaction at the end of each day. The study also measured coworker similarity, which assessed how similar participants felt to their coworkers in terms of beliefs, values, and attitudes.
The results of Study 2 provided more detailed insights into how overhearing political conversations affected employees over time. Similar to Study 1, the researchers found that overhearing political conversations was associated with increased negative emotions, but only for employees who felt less similar to their coworkers. Those who felt more similar to their coworkers experienced less negative affect when overhearing these conversations.
The negative emotions triggered by overhearing political conversations had a significant impact on employees’ daily job satisfaction and progress toward work goals. Employees who reported more negative emotions after overhearing political conversations were less likely to feel satisfied with their jobs and more likely to struggle with completing their work tasks. However, the study did not find strong evidence that these conversations led to cognitive depletion. 
After discovering that overhearing political conversations had negative emotional effects, the researchers wanted to investigate whether the content of the conversations—specifically whether employees agreed or disagreed with the political views being discussed—would influence the emotional reactions. To do this, they conducted two additional studies (Studies 3A and 3B) using similar recall methods to Study 1, but with an added focus on whether participants agreed or disagreed with the political conversation they overheard and whether they perceived their coworkers as similar or dissimilar.
In Study 3A, the researchers recruited 374 full-time employees via Prolific. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: recalling an overheard political conversation they agreed with, recalling an overheard political conversation they disagreed with, or recalling a non-political workplace conversation (control group). The researchers measured participants’ emotional reactions (positive and negative affect) and feelings of cognitive depletion, as well as coworker similarity.
Study 3B took the design of Study 3A a step further by specifically asking participants to recall overheard political conversations involving coworkers they felt were either similar or dissimilar to them in terms of beliefs. This study involved 545 participants from Prolific, and the researchers measured similar variables to Study 3A, focusing on how coworker similarity influenced emotional reactions to overheard political conversations.
The findings from these two studies added further nuance to the earlier results. In Study 3A, the researchers found that overhearing political conversations participants disagreed with significantly increased negative emotions, while overhearing conversations they agreed with boosted positive emotions. However, coworker similarity played an important role: when employees felt more similar to their coworkers, the negative emotional impact of overhearing disagreeable political conversations was reduced.
Study 3B confirmed these results, showing that the emotional response to overhearing political conversations was influenced by both agreement with the content and perceived similarity to coworkers. In particular, employees who overheard political conversations they disagreed with and who felt dissimilar to their coworkers experienced the most negative emotions. On the other hand, those who felt similar to their coworkers were less likely to experience negative emotions, even when they disagreed with the political content of the conversation.
Together, these studies highlight the emotional toll that overhearing political conversations in the workplace can take on employees, particularly when they feel politically different from their coworkers. Overhearing disagreeable political discussions can trigger negative emotions, such as stress and frustration, which can harm job satisfaction and work productivity. However, the studies also suggest that the negative impact can be mitigated when employees feel a sense of similarity with their coworkers.
The study, “(https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/apl0001171) Hidden Consequences of Political Discourse at Work: How and Why Ambient Political Conversations Impact Employee Outcomes,” was authored by Christopher C. Rosen, Joel Koopman, Allison S. Gabriel, Young Eun Lee, Maira Ezerins, and Philip L. Roth.

(https://www.psypost.org/family-and-friend-support-is-key-to-healthier-non-monogamous-relationships/) Family and friend support is key to healthier non-monogamous relationships
Oct 4th 2024, 14:00

A new study published in (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2024.2393783) The Journal of Sex Research highlights the role that social support plays in improving the relationship quality of individuals in consensual non-monogamous relationships. Researchers found that those with a supportive social network, including family and friends, were better equipped to handle societal stigma. This support appeared to be particularly beneficial for individuals who internalized negative views about their relationships due to societal pressures favoring monogamy.
Consensual non-monogamy refers to romantic relationships in which all partners agree to maintain emotional and/or sexual connections with multiple people. Despite the fact that one in five people have reportedly been in a consensual non-monogamous relationship at some point, these relationships are often met with stigmatization due to the prevalence of “mononormativity” — the widespread belief that romantic partnerships should involve emotional and sexual exclusivity between two people.
These beliefs can create a stigma that can be damaging, particularly when individuals internalize these negative attitudes, leading to what researchers call internalized negativity. Previous studies have shown that internalized negativity can negatively affect self-esteem and well-being in other marginalized groups. However, not much is known about how this impacts people in consensual non-monogamous relationships.
“There is substantial evidence that individuals in consensual non-monogamous relationships often maintain highly functional relationships,” said study author (https://ciencia.iscte-iul.pt/authors/david-rodrigues/cv) David L. Rodrigues, vice director of CIS-Iscte at Iscte-University Institute of Lisbon. “However, research is only beginning to explore the impact of the social stigma associated with these relationship structures. My interest emerged from this contrast, and I am particularly motivated to advance research that serves the consensual non-monogamous community. My goal is to contribute to a deeper understanding of how to enhance psychological wellbeing and social functioning within the context of stigmatized relationship structures.”
The researchers conducted a cross-sectional study involving 439 participants who identified as being in a consensual non-monogamous relationship. These participants came from 35 different countries, although most were from the American continent. The majority of participants identified as White and employed, with a slight majority being female. Around 41% identified as heterosexual, while the rest represented various sexual orientations, including bisexual and pansexual.
Participants were asked a series of questions about their relationships, including whether they had a primary partner and, if so, how they viewed the structure of their relationships. Relationship structure could involve a primary-secondary dynamic (where one partner is considered primary), a co-primary structure (where more than one partner is equally primary), or a non-primary structure (where no partner is considered primary).
The researchers measured internalized negativity using a scale that assessed personal discomfort with being in a consensual non-monogamous relationship, social discomfort, and public identification with consensual non-monogamy. Social support was measured by asking participants to rate the emotional support they received from family and friends.
Other measures included relationship commitment, the extent to which participants had disclosed their relationship status to close and extended social circles, and how accepted they felt by their family and friends. Participants with more than one partner were asked about both their primary and secondary relationships, which allowed the researchers to compare relationship dynamics across different partners.
The researchers found that participants who internalized negative societal views about consensual non-monogamous relationships reported lower commitment to their primary partner, disclosed their relationship agreement less often to people in their social circles, and felt less accepted by their family and friends. They also kept their relationships more secretive, particularly when it came to their secondary partners.
However, the study also found that social support appeared to play a significant role in mitigating these negative outcomes. Individuals who perceived more support from their family and friends were more committed to their primary partner, felt more accepted by those close to them, and were less likely to keep their relationships a secret.
Interestingly, for individuals with high levels of internalized negativity, social support was linked to higher relationship commitment and acceptance, especially with their primary partner. In contrast, those with lower levels of internalized negativity benefited from social support in different ways, including being more open about their relationships with their close social circle and experiencing less secrecy.
“Our study suggests that social support plays a critical role in mitigating the adverse effects of stigma among individuals in consensual non-monogamous relationships,” Rodrigues told PsyPost. “Specifically, we found that a strong and accepting support system from family and friends was beneficial for relationship functioning, particularly for those more susceptible to internalizing societal stigma and negative perceptions of consensual non-monogamy.”
However, the researchers found that for participants with high internalized negativity, greater social support was associated with less disclosure of their relationship agreement to their extended social circles (e.g., coworkers). This suggests that individuals may feel more comfortable confiding in close friends and family but may still fear broader social repercussions if they disclose their relationship to more distant acquaintances or colleagues.
“I was surprised to discover that, while social support can improve relationship dynamics among individuals with multiple consensual non-monogamous partners, it did not seem sufficient to reduce relationship secrecy among those who tended to internalize negative societal views of non-monogamy,” Rodrigues said. “Although we lack empirical data to confirm this hypothesis, these individuals may struggle with balancing private acceptance and public disclosure of their relationship structure. They may require additional sources of support or greater assurance that they will not face stigma from others.”
One of the key limitations is its cross-sectional design, meaning that the researchers could not establish cause-and-effect relationships. Future research could use longitudinal methods to track these processes over time and explore how they evolve.
“The primary limitation of this study relates to the nature of the data,” Rodrigues noted. “We argued that exposure to negative social views of consensual non-monogamy on a daily basis increases the likelihood of internalizing this negativity. However, it is also possible that negative personal experiences within consensual non-monogamous relationships contribute to such internalized negativity.”
“Employing a longitudinal approach will be essential for disentangling these factors and clarifying the roots of internalized negativity. Nevertheless, our study has paved the way for further research to examine whether different forms of social support (e.g., being part of the consensual non-monogamous community) or contextual factors (e.g., workplace policies that utilize inclusive language) serve as additional buffers against the consequences of internalized negativity.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2024.2393783) Perceived Social Support Buffers the Consequences of Internalized Negativity Among Individuals in Consensual Non-Monogamous Relationships,” was authored by David L. Rodrigues, Thomas R. Brooks, Rhonda N. Balzarini, and Amy C. Moors.

(https://www.psypost.org/men-are-carrying-the-brunt-of-the-loneliness-epidemic/) Men are carrying the brunt of the loneliness epidemic
Oct 4th 2024, 12:00

A few weeks before Justin Bieber and his wife, Hailey, announced in May 2024 that they were expecting, the pop icon posted a selfie where (https://www.instagram.com/p/C6SJDv5PLSr/?img_index=7) he appears tearful and distraught.
While media attention quickly pivoted to the pregnancy, there was little attention paid to the significance of a male celebrity and (https://metro.co.uk/2024/05/01/justin-biebers-deep-reason-posting-crying-pictures-online-20751519/) expectant father publicly sharing his vulnerability.
Yet Bieber’s social media post is notable for making his internal struggle visible.
(https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/disaster-distress-helpline/warning-signs-risk-factors) Emotional pain is linked to serious health issues. But the public’s response to male expressions of emotion and vulnerability is often minimizing, if not dismissive. In response to Bieber’s tearful post, for example, Hailey described him as a “(https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/hailey-bieber-justin-bieber-pretty-crier-crying-pictures-1235668618/) pretty crier.”
A year ago, the Canadian rapper Dax released the song “(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHxip2x-PLc) To Be a Man.” He said at the time: “This is a song I poured my heart into. I’m praying this reaches everyone who needs it.”
Today, the song’s message remains timely. (https://genius.com/Dax-to-be-a-man-lyrics) It includes the lyrics:
Yeah, I know this life can really beat you down, uh
You wanna scream but you won’t make a sound, uh
Got so much weight that you’ve been holdin’
But won’t show any emotion, as a man, that goes unspoken
As (https://humanecology.wisc.edu/staff/thomas-alvin/) researchers who (https://humanecology.wisc.edu/staff/kinzer-quinn/) study fatherhood and the roles that men play in (https://socwork.wisc.edu/staff/tova-walsh-phd/) their families, we recognize the loneliness and pain in these lyrics. We have heard fathers describe the toll of attempting to keep a lid on their feelings.
In (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10184460/) a recent study we conducted on 75 new and expectant Black fathers, they spoke of the need to address individual and collective trauma. This, they said, would ultimately help support their families. But they said resources to help men with their mental health are often unavailable or very limited. They said they often feel invisible to health providers.
“Being a father and a man,” one participant said, “you have to keep the peace and be strong on the outside. But on the inside, you know, you’re falling apart.”
Dax’s lyrics and our research reflect an enduring social health challenge – the deafening silence that typically surrounds men’s mental health.
The toll of isolation on men
In May 2023, U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek Murthy released an advisory highlighting what he described as an (https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2023/05/03/new-surgeon-general-advisory-raises-alarm-about-devastating-impact-epidemic-loneliness-isolation-united-states.html) epidemic of loneliness and isolation in the country. Our research confirms this scourge.
Since men’s social support networks – colleagues, family, close childhood friends – are often less robust than women’s, the epidemic disproportionately impacts men. The resulting solitude has very real health consequences.
In Murthy’s report, loneliness is associated with negative health outcomes, including a “29% increased risk of heart disease, a 32% increased risk of stroke, and a 50% increased risk of developing dementia for older adults. Additionally, lacking social connection increases risk of premature death by more than 60%.”
While Murthy’s report focuses on both men and women, research shows that men are (https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/332974) less likely than women to seek mental health services. Additionally, men hold more negative attitudes toward seeking help, and they prematurely terminate treatment more often than women.
With these consequences in mind, a caring society may ask: Why are men carrying the brunt of this health risk, and what can be done about it?
Redefining men’s value beyond breadwinning
Many factors can contribute to feelings of isolation and disconnection among men.
In “To Be A Man,” Dax points toward one prominent factor:
As a man, we gotta pave our way
Our only function is to work and slave
There’s no respect for you if you ain’t paid
You’re disregarded as a human and you can’t complain
Traditional definitions of masculinity emphasize the importance of men’s role as breadwinners.
(https://www.reuters.com/markets/us/uncertainty-growth-risks-put-fed-cautious-footing-september-minutes-show-2023-10-11/) An uncertain economy and (https://www.businessinsider.com/buying-a-house-keeps-getting-more-expensive-nar-report-2024-5) increasingly expensive housing and food prices make the ability to financially provide for a family elusive for many men. These factors also (https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/332974) undermine men’s sense of self and contribute to loneliness and feelings of isolation.
As partners and fathers, men are still often perceived as deficient if they can’t provide economically. And societal norms stress that they are not valued for their capacity as caregivers, even if they are more involved in raising their children than ever before.
This is out of touch with reality.
Men play an important role as caregivers in their children’s lives, according to our research, and exert a powerful influence on children’s health and well-being. Men also find meaning in their roles as fathers.
As Dax says:
As a man, our son is our horizon
The cost of suppressed vulnerability
Beyond pressures to provide, men also have to overcome enduring stereotypes that suggest they should be stoic and keep their fears and sadness to themselves.
Here, too, gender norms are in need of an update. Boys and men need to feel comfortable presenting their true, authentic selves to the world. When they suppress their vulnerability, it creates a barrier to seeking help. It also perpetuates stigma and the epidemic of loneliness.
There is a complex interplay between society’s assumptions and beliefs about men and fatherhood.
Men, consequently, are less likely than women to seek mental health services. Health providers, as a result, are (https://adaa.org/find-help/by-demographics/mens-mental-health) more likely to underdiagnose and misdiagnose men. Additionally, when health resources are made available, they are often not tailored to men’s needs.
Societal expectations can create unbearable pressure for men. And the most marginalized groups, (https://www.ksdk.com/article/news/local/the-st-louis-american/covid-19-pandemic-black-fathers/63-693e0969-1a91-45a0-862d-49d5d26e0b48) like low-income Black fathers, bear a disproportionate burden, research shows. This became more evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, when Black fathers working in high-risk and essential jobs prioritized supporting their children and families over their own risk of infection and mental health.
As men continue to redefine their roles within families and communities, it’s important for society to create a space that acknowledges and embraces their vulnerabilities and full humanity in all social roles.
Men need outlets for their pain. They would benefit from relationships – with partners, family and friends – that support and nurture them in times of joy and through the emotional challenges. Their loneliness will continue to be disproportionate without the necessary connection to services.
Men can consider engaging in low-stakes discussion groups in their communities, with online groups and in their churches. They may also seek out therapists in person or online for introductory sessions to (https://helplinefaqs.nami.org/article/449-are-there-mental-health-resources-and-support-specifically-for-men) test out the therapeutic interaction before establishing a more consistent pattern of therapy services.
In “To Be a Man,” Dax sings:
No wonder most men are so depressed
All the things that they can’t express
It’s the circle of life, as a man, you provide
They don’t know what you’re worth ‘til the day that you die
As the Biebers adjust to life as parents, Justin may find people he can talk to about his experiences and emotions, people who see and value him fully. And we hope the same for every man and father, living their life out of the spotlight and doing the best they can for themselves and for their family.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/men-are-carrying-the-brunt-of-the-loneliness-epidemic-amid-potent-societal-pressures-230354) original article.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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