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(https://www.psypost.org/listening-to-joe-rogan-predicts-belief-in-extraterrestrial-ufos-study-finds/) Listening to Joe Rogan predicts belief in extraterrestrial UFOs, study finds
Dec 19th 2024, 08:00

A recent study published in the (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15456870.2023.2187803) Atlantic Journal of Communication investigated how media consumption habits are linked to beliefs in unidentified flying objects. The findings provide evidence that consuming certain types of media, such as paranormal documentaries, reality television, Fox News, YouTube, and the Joe Rogan Experience podcast, is associated with a higher likelihood of believing that alien spacecraft are visiting Earth.
The researchers undertook this study to better understand the societal factors contributing to (https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/06/30/most-americans-believe-in-intelligent-life-beyond-earth-few-see-ufos-as-a-major-national-security-threat/) the public’s growing interest in UFOs. The release of the United States government’s (https://www.dni.gov/index.php/newsroom/reports-publications/reports-publications-2021/3550-preliminary-assessment-unidentified-aerial-phenomena) report on “unidentified aerial phenomena” in June 2021 sparked widespread media coverage and public discussion about the topic. This disclosure, which acknowledged the existence of unexplained sightings by credible sources such as military pilots, brought UFOs into mainstream discourse. Against this backdrop, the researchers sought to examine whether certain media platforms and genres influenced public beliefs in UFOs.
Media plays a powerful role in shaping how people interpret and understand the world, especially when dealing with phenomena that lack definitive explanations. The researchers recognized that different types of media—ranging from entertainment-focused paranormal documentaries to news outlets and social media platforms—vary widely in their portrayal of UFOs.
Some media sources emphasize mystery and excitement, while others frame UFOs within larger discussions of science, government transparency, or conspiracy theories. This variability led the researchers to question whether exposure to specific types of media could correlate with stronger beliefs in UFOs.
“The senior advisor on the project, Paul Brewer, introduced me to this line of research. Investigating how media impacts belief has always been an important part of communication studies. For me, my mom always watched Ghost Hunters shows, and my grandfather was a firm believer in UFOs, so this made it feel close to home,” said study author Robert Stise, a PhD candidate at the University of Delaware.
To investigate the relationship between media consumption and belief in UFOs, the researchers analyzed data from a nationally representative survey conducted two months after the release of the United States government’s report on “unidentified aerial phenomena.” This timing allowed them to assess public opinion while interest in the topic was still heightened due to media coverage. The survey included 1,035 participants, providing a large and diverse sample representative of the general population in terms of age, gender, and other demographic factors.
Participants were asked detailed questions about their media consumption habits, focusing on specific genres, platforms, and outlets. In addition to media consumption, participants answered questions about their beliefs in UFOs. These questions assessed whether respondents believed UFOs might be evidence of extraterrestrial life.
The study found that general television consumption and viewership of traditional network news were unrelated to belief in extraterrestrial UFOs. This indicates that simply watching TV is not inherently linked to these beliefs; rather, the specific content consumed matters. Viewing paranormal documentaries and reality television emerged as the strongest predictors of belief in extraterrestrial UFOs. Fox News viewership was also positively associated with belief in UFOs.
When examining social media platforms, the researchers found no significant association with belief in extraterrestrial UFOs except for YouTube. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram did not show measurable effects on UFO beliefs. This might be due to the diverse range of content on these platforms, which dilutes the impact of any single topic, or the fact that UFO-related discussions on these platforms are less algorithmically curated compared to YouTube.
While listening to podcasts in general was unrelated to belief in extraterrestrial UFOs, listening to the Joe Rogan Experience podcast emerged as the second strongest predictor of belief in UFOs. The podcast, known for hosting long-form discussions with a variety of guests, often features conversations about UFOs, alien encounters, and other unconventional topics. The casual, conversational tone of these discussions may lend credibility to such ideas among listeners.
“Media does not determine beliefs, but it can influence us,” Stise told PsyPost. “The media we consume and that our neighbors consume matters. To me, this is even more interesting with the rise of media personalities like Joe Rogan, who are focused on getting ideas out there and making episodes that are intentionally or inadvertently lending credence and legitimacy to topics that we might label pseudoscience.”
“The association with Joe Rogan was what we expected to find, but it is still my favorite finding and has birthed a number of follow-up studies the team is working on,” he added.
The researchers controlled for a number of factors to isolate the impact of specific media genres, platforms, and outlets on UFO beliefs. These included age, gender, race/ethnicity, education level, income level, region of residence, urban vs. rural location, overall media consumption, news media consumption frequency, political orientation, religious beliefs, and prior interest in paranormal topics. But as with all research, there are limitations.
“The standard caveat is that correlation is not causation,” Stise noted. “This paper has identified a potential relationship between consuming certain kinds of media and belief in UFOs. I think there are good theoretical reasons for why these relationships exist, but further research is needed to verify these relationships and demonstrate causal connections.”
For instance, while it is plausible that listening to the Joe Rogan Experience increases the likelihood of believing in extraterrestrial UFOs, it is equally plausible that individuals who already believe in UFOs are naturally drawn to the content Joe Rogan provides, regardless of his show’s UFO-related content. Future studies could address this by conducting longitudinal research to track changes in beliefs over time and using experimental designs to test how exposure to specific types of media impacts beliefs.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2023.2187803) Cultivating paranormal beliefs: how television viewing, social media use, and podcast listening predict belief in UFOs,” was authored by Robert Stise, James Bingaman, Aysha Siddika, Wyatt Dawson, Ashley Paintsil, and Paul R. Brewer.

(https://www.psypost.org/handwriting-activates-broader-brain-networks-than-typing-study-shows/) Handwriting activates broader brain networks than typing, study shows
Dec 19th 2024, 06:00

While keyboards dominate modern classrooms, a new study in (https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1219945/full) Frontiers in Psychology suggests handwriting may be irreplaceable when it comes to learning. Researchers found that writing by hand activates far more extensive and interconnected brain networks compared to typing, particularly in regions linked to memory and sensory processing. These findings provide new evidence that handwriting engages the brain in unique ways, raising concerns about the growing reliance on digital tools for education.
As digital tools replace traditional handwriting in classrooms, concerns have arisen about how this shift might impact learning. Typing on a keyboard is often preferred because it enables children to express themselves more quickly and with less physical strain. However, prior research has shown that handwriting is linked to better memory retention, letter recognition, and overall learning outcomes. The fine motor movements involved in handwriting seem to stimulate the brain differently than typing, but the exact neurological mechanisms behind this difference remained unclear.
To investigate, the researchers focused on brain connectivity, which describes how different brain regions work together to accomplish a task. By comparing brain activity during handwriting and typing, the team hoped to uncover whether the physical act of handwriting promotes more extensive brain communication patterns—patterns thought to support learning and memory formation.
“The brain research on handwriting is really a spin-off of our infant brain research in the (https://www.ntnu.edu/psychology/nulab#/view/about) NuLab, our developmental neuroscience laboratory at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), where we show that babies are born with a brain that is ready to learn from day one,” said study author Audrey van der Meer, a professor of neuropsychology.
For their new study, the researchers recruited 40 university students in their early twenties. To ensure consistency, only right-handed participants were included in the analysis, as determined by a standardized handedness assessment. After excluding participants whose data contained artifacts, the final sample consisted of 36 individuals.
Each participant completed two tasks: handwriting and typing. For the handwriting condition, participants used a digital pen to write visually presented words in cursive directly on a touchscreen. For the typing condition, participants typed the same words on a keyboard using only their right index finger. Participants wrote or typed each word repeatedly within a 25-second window while brain activity was recorded. To avoid visual distractions, the words did not appear on the screen during typing.
Brain electrical activity was measured using high-density electroencephalography (EEG), a method that captures rapid changes in brain activity using a net of sensors placed on the scalp. The researchers focused on connectivity, analyzing how strongly different brain regions communicated with each other while participants wrote or typed.
“In our previous studies, critics sometimes mentioned we had tested too few participants,” van der Meer told PsyPost. “This time, we recruited 40 young adults and were able to use the brain data from 36. This is a massive amount of data given that our EEG nets consist of 256 electrodes and can record data at up to 1,000 Hz.”
The results revealed striking differences in brain activity between handwriting and typing. Handwriting activated far more widespread and interconnected brain networks than typing, particularly in the theta (3.5–7.5 Hz) and alpha (8–12.5 Hz) frequency bands. These brain waves, particularly in the lower frequency range, are associated with memory formation, sensory processing, and attention.
The most significant connectivity patterns during handwriting emerged in central and parietal brain regions, which are involved in processing motor control, sensory input, and higher-order cognitive tasks. In contrast, typing produced far less synchronized activity across these areas, indicating that pressing keys involves far less integration of visual, motor, and sensory input than forming letters by hand.
The researchers proposed that handwriting’s benefits arise from the spatiotemporal complexity of the task. Handwriting requires precise coordination of vision, motor commands, and sensory feedback as the brain continuously adjusts finger and hand movements to shape each letter. Typing, on the other hand, relies on repetitive keystrokes that provide minimal motor variation or feedback.
“In our handwriting research, it becomes clear that the brain works differently when writing by hand as opposed to when typing on a keyboard,” van der Meer explained. “Precisely forming letters by hand requires fine motor skills and involves the body and senses to a much larger degree than typing on a keyboard does. As a result, handwriting involves most of the brain, requiring the brain to communicate fast and efficiently between its active parts.”
“Our latest results show widespread brain connectivity for handwriting but not for typewriting, suggesting that the spatiotemporal pattern from visual and proprioceptive information obtained through the precisely controlled hand movements when using a pen, contribute extensively to the brain’s connectivity patterns that promote learning.”
The study’s findings suggest that handwriting should remain an essential part of education, especially for young children whose brains are still developing. The researchers argue that handwriting’s ability to engage the brain more fully provides “optimal conditions for learning,” making it an important tool for fostering cognitive growth.
Rather than abandoning handwriting in favor of digital tools, the researchers recommend a balanced approach. While keyboards are useful for certain tasks, handwriting offers unique neurological benefits that cannot be replicated by typing alone. Schools, therefore, should prioritize handwriting instruction to ensure children develop the brain connectivity patterns that support lifelong learning.
“Our brain research shows that handwriting is very good brain stimulation—especially for the developing brain in young children,” van der Meer said. “Therefore, we propose a minimum of handwriting tuition for all children in the lower grades. Also, we see the ability to write by hand and to draw as an important part of our cultural heritage, and we think it is important that the next generation is able to write a poem or love letter by hand. Incidentally, based on (https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01810/full) our 2020 paper, 20 states in the United States decided to reintroduce handwriting instruction in schools.”
“We are sometimes accused of being against all digital development and wanting to go back to the stone age. All we are saying is that while it is vital to maintain handwriting practice at school, it is also important to keep up with continuously developing technological advances. Therefore, teachers and pupils alike should be aware of which practice has the best learning effect in what context, for example, when taking lecture notes or when writing an essay.”
While the study provides evidence that handwriting promotes more extensive brain connectivity, it does have limitations. The participants were young adults, so the findings may not generalize to children or older adults. Additionally, the study used digital handwriting, which may differ slightly from traditional pen-and-paper writing in terms of sensory input and motor control.
The researchers plan to address these limitations in future studies. For example, they are investigating whether students who take notes by hand learn more effectively than those who type. They also hope to explore whether older adults who practice handwriting regularly exhibit slower cognitive decline than those who rely exclusively on digital tools.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1219945) Handwriting but not typewriting leads to widespread brain connectivity: a high-density EEG study with implications for the classroom,” was authored by F. R. (Ruud) Van der Weel and Audrey L. H. Van der Meer.

(https://www.psypost.org/what-makes-a-company-christmas-party-good-research-identifies-key-ingredients-for-success/) What makes a company Christmas party good? Research identifies key ingredients for success
Dec 18th 2024, 18:00

Office Christmas parties are often viewed as a chance for employees to unwind, connect, and celebrate the year’s achievements. However, the success of these events can vary greatly depending on how they are organized and experienced. In a study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27473-y) Scientific Reports, Hannes Zacher from (https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en/profile/mitarbeiter/prof-dr-hannes-zacher) Leipzig University explored what factors contribute to a successful company Christmas party and how they influence employees’ happiness.
The annual company Christmas party is more than just an end-of-year celebration; it serves as a ritual that reflects the culture, values, and interpersonal dynamics within an organization. While office parties are common, surprisingly little research has investigated their impact on employee happiness or workplace culture. This gap motivated Zacher, as he aimed to identify factors that predict employee satisfaction and emotional experiences during such events.
“Many people, including myself and my colleagues, attend a company holiday party every year,” Zacher explained. “As a psychologist studying work and organization, I wanted to find out which features of these annual events are associated with employee happiness. Surprisingly, there was very little research on this topic, so I conducted my own study with several hundred employees.”
For employees, the Christmas party is a rare opportunity to interact outside the typical work environment, potentially fostering stronger bonds, improving morale, and providing a sense of recognition. However, poorly planned events can have the opposite effect, creating discomfort or dissatisfaction. Understanding what makes a Christmas party enjoyable can help companies plan events that strengthen team relationships and contribute to a positive work atmosphere.
To determine what makes a Christmas party successful, Zacher surveyed 359 employees in Germany shortly after the 2018 holiday season. Participants represented a diverse range of ages, salary levels, and industries, ensuring a broad perspective on the topic. The survey included questions about their recent company Christmas party, such as its location, activities, costs, and overall atmosphere.
Participants rated their satisfaction and emotional responses to the party, including positive emotions (e.g., excitement, relaxation) and negative emotions (e.g., frustration, nervousness). Zacher also collected information on personal characteristics, such as employees’ involvement in planning the party, their attitudes toward Christmas, and their identification with the organization. Organizational factors, such as company culture, were also assessed.
One of the study’s key findings was the role of employee characteristics, particularly organizational identification and involvement in party planning. Employees who felt a strong sense of connection to their organization—described as organizational identification—were more likely to experience positive emotions during the Christmas party. This bond fostered feelings of excitement and enthusiasm, likely because employees viewed the event as a reflection of their own organizational pride and identity.
Interestingly, employees who were actively involved in planning the Christmas party also reported higher levels of high-energy positive emotions, such as excitement. Being part of the organizing process may have increased their sense of ownership and engagement, contributing to a more rewarding experience.
However, other personal characteristics, such as religious affiliation and general attitudes toward Christmas, did not significantly influence happiness. This finding suggests that an employee’s relationship with the organization plays a far greater role in shaping their party experience than personal beliefs or preferences.
The workplace’s organizational culture emerged as another significant factor in determining employees’ happiness during the event. The study specifically examined two cultural models: the human relations culture and the internal process culture.
A human relations culture, which emphasizes teamwork, flexibility, and employee morale, was strongly linked to higher satisfaction with the Christmas party. Employees in these organizations felt more positive and less dissatisfied with the event, suggesting that a supportive and cohesive environment contributes to a more enjoyable experience. In workplaces where teamwork and morale are prioritized, the Christmas party may serve as a natural extension of the existing organizational values, fostering feelings of inclusion and camaraderie.
The internal process culture, characterized by stability and continuity, had a more limited but still positive effect on happiness. Specifically, employees in these environments reported greater feelings of low-energy positive emotions, such as calmness and relaxation, likely due to the structured and predictable nature of the event.
In contrast, organizations that emphasized rigid rules, excessive control, or a competitive atmosphere (characteristics of other cultural models like the rational goal culture) did not significantly contribute to employee happiness during the party. This finding highlights the importance of creating a workplace culture that values connection and emotional well-being, especially during celebratory events.
The most influential predictors of happiness were the specific features of the Christmas party itself. These findings provide practical insights into what companies can do—or avoid—to ensure their parties are successful.
Positive factors:
Certain elements of the party significantly enhanced employees’ satisfaction and positive emotions:

Fun activities: Events that included engaging activities, such as games, karaoke, or team-based challenges, were strongly associated with higher satisfaction. These activities encouraged employees to relax, bond with colleagues, and enjoy moments of laughter and camaraderie outside the typical workplace setting.
Speeches: A well-delivered speech by a manager or leader significantly reduced dissatisfaction and negative emotions among employees. These speeches often highlighted organizational achievements, expressed gratitude, or set a positive tone for the future. Employees appreciated this recognition, which fostered a sense of inclusion and appreciation.
Beverage options: Providing a variety of both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages was linked to a more inclusive and enjoyable environment. Employees valued having choices, as it avoided creating pressure to drink alcohol and ensured that everyone could comfortably participate.
Food quality: Interestingly, while buffet-style food did not strongly impact happiness, parties that offered à la carte dining were associated with higher satisfaction. Personalized meal options likely elevated the experience by making the event feel more thoughtful and tailored to attendees’ preferences.
Music: Background music or a live band contributed to a more enjoyable atmosphere, with employees reporting higher satisfaction when music was present. Music added to the festive mood, encouraging social interactions and, in some cases, dancing.
External location: Christmas parties held outside the workplace premises were linked to slightly higher satisfaction. An external venue provided a change of scenery, signaling a break from the work routine and adding a sense of novelty to the celebration.

Negative factors:
The study also identified several elements that dampened employees’ experiences, leading to dissatisfaction and negative emotions:

Heavy drinking: Parties where employees consumed alcohol excessively (five or more drinks per person) were strongly associated with dissatisfaction and increased stress. While moderate drinking contributed to a lively atmosphere, heavy consumption often led to inappropriate behavior and awkward situations, undermining the festive tone.
Inappropriate behavior: One of the most impactful negative factors was inappropriate conduct, particularly behavior such as sexualized comments or unwanted advances. This type of behavior, whether from colleagues or supervisors, heightened employees’ feelings of discomfort, frustration, and embarrassment. It not only spoiled the party atmosphere but also damaged trust and relationships within the team.
Excessive formality: Events with rigid expectations, overly structured schedules, or formal behavior requirements were associated with lower satisfaction. Employees preferred parties that were relaxed and informal, where they could interact more naturally and genuinely enjoy the celebration.

“The study suggests how to design a successful company holiday party,” Zacher told PsyPost, outlining seven key elements: “1) have a positive company culture to start with, 2) host it off-site, 3) include activities, 4) keep it informal, 5) incorporate symbolism that ties it back to the organization’s mission and values, 6) provide drinks, but 7) avoid heavy drinking.”
While this study provides valuable insights, it does have some limitations. First, the findings are based on self-reported data, which may include biases in how employees recall or interpret their experiences. Future research could include observational data or input from multiple sources, such as managers and coworkers. Second, the study was conducted in Germany, so cultural factors may influence the generalizability of the results to other countries.
Looking ahead, Zacher is exploring new dimensions of holiday party dynamics. “I am currently looking into the question of who looks forward to, attends, and enjoys company holiday parties—that is, how people’s personality relates to their experience and behavior related to this holiday ritual,” he said.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-27473-y) The company Christmas party and employee happiness,” was published January 07, 2023.

(https://www.psypost.org/long-term-practitioners-of-orgasmic-meditation-show-unique-brain-activity-patterns/) Long-term practitioners of Orgasmic Meditation show unique brain activity patterns
Dec 18th 2024, 16:00

A new study published in (https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroimaging/articles/10.3389/fnimg.2024.1368537/full) Frontiers in Neuroimaging has found that long-term practitioners of Orgasmic Meditation (OM)—a partnered mindfulness practice involving sexual stimulation—show lower brain metabolism at rest compared to non-meditators. The research highlights differences in specific brain regions linked to emotional processing, attention, and sensory awareness. Notably, women in the OM group exhibited particularly reduced activity in the thalamus and insula, areas closely associated with sensory and emotional integration.
Meditation practices have been extensively studied for their effects on the brain. Previous research has shown that long-term meditation can alter both brain structure and function, influencing emotional regulation, attention, and cognitive processes. However, most studies focus on traditional forms of meditation like mindfulness or transcendental meditation. Orgasmic Meditation (OM) offers a unique opportunity to explore how a mindfulness technique centered on bodily sensations affects the brain over time.
“I have had a long interest and career in studying various religious and spiritual (R/S) practices and experiences. This arose initially out of an early interest in understanding the nature of reality and why there are different belief systems,” said study author (https://www.andrewnewberg.com/) Andrew Newberg, a professor of integrative medicine and nutritional sciences at Thomas Jefferson University.
“Over the past 30 years, I have studied many different types of R/S beliefs, practices, and experiences. This has included an ongoing program of research evaluating many different traditions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, etc. In addition, much of my early work focused on the nature of rituals and the brain as an entry into the study of R/S practices,” Newberg explained.
“We recognized the power of rituals in R/S as well as many other aspects of human life (e.g., politics, education, sports, etc.),” he continued. “My late colleague, Dr. Eugene d’Aquili, and I were particularly interested in the evolution of rituals in the brain. In particular, we noted that human rituals would likely have evolved from animal rituals. But all animal rituals are mating rituals. Thus, there was most likely a connection between mating and sexuality, and various human rituals.
“But the specific study of this would have to wait until the current research, in which we were able to study a practice that incorporates sexual stimulation as the focus of a spiritual practice. My hope was that this would help to demonstrate the link between sexuality and spirituality, a topic I address directly and more fully in my most recent book, (https://amzn.to/4iHFZek) Sex, God, and the Brain.”
The research team recruited 40 experienced OM practitioners—20 men and 20 women—who had been practicing regularly for over a year (2–3 sessions per week). For comparison, a control group of 19 healthy individuals with no history of meditation was included.
To measure brain activity, researchers used 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET), a neuroimaging technique that tracks glucose metabolism in the brain. Higher glucose metabolism generally indicates increased brain activity, while lower metabolism reflects reduced activity. Importantly, all participants underwent brain scans while at rest, meaning they were not engaged in meditation or any specific task during imaging.
The researchers found that OM practitioners exhibited lower activity in several brain regions while at rest. These regions include the frontal lobes, which are associated with attention, planning, and higher-order thinking; the temporal lobes, important for memory and sensory processing; and the parietal lobes, which play a role in self-awareness and spatial orientation. Additionally, lower metabolism was observed in the anterior cingulate cortex, which helps regulate emotions and cognitive control, and the thalamus and insula, two areas critical for sensory and emotional integration.
“This study showed that people doing this practice over long periods of time alter the baseline function of their brain,” Newberg told PsyPost. “We have observed this with other practices and it implies that there are long term changes in the brain.”
While traditional forms of meditation, such as focused attention practices, often show increased activity in areas related to cognitive control and focus, OM appears to produce a distinct effect that reduces activity in regions linked to sensory awareness, emotional responses, and self-referential thinking. This pattern aligns with OM practitioners’ subjective experiences of deep relaxation, calmness, and heightened emotional awareness during and after the practice.
“While we found many changes we expected, we never know exactly what we will find,” Newberg said. “We found changes in many of the brain areas during this practice that combines sexuality and meditation—changes we have also found in other practices. There were also powerful changes in the autonomic nervous system that show how the brain and body are connected. This is also how rituals work to evoke a strong experience not only in the mind but in the body as well.”
The researchers also observed gender-specific differences in brain activity among OM practitioners. Women demonstrated lower metabolism in the thalamus and insula, regions that are central to integrating sensory input and emotional responses. This finding is particularly interesting because the thalamus and insula have also been linked to sexual arousal and climax. The changes seen in female practitioners may reflect the unique combination of sensory stimulation and meditative focus that defines the OM practice.
In contrast, men showed reduced brain activity in areas like the cerebellum, cingulate gyrus, and regions of the temporal lobe. The cerebellum’s involvement may be linked to the coordination required for the physical aspect of providing stimulation in the OM practice, while the cingulate and temporal regions are associated with emotional regulation, social processing, and memory. These distinctions between men and women suggest that OM impacts the brain differently based on the roles participants play during the practice—those receiving sensory input versus those providing it.
Despite its intriguing findings, the study has some limitations. First, the sample size was relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the results. Future research with larger groups could help confirm these findings. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported information about participants’ OM experience, such as practice frequency and duration, which introduces the potential for recall bias or inaccuracies.
The correlational nature of the data also prevents conclusions about causality, meaning it is unclear whether OM practice directly caused the observed brain changes or if other factors contributed. It would also be valuable to investigate whether the observed changes in brain activity correlate with specific psychological or health benefits reported by OM practitioners, such as improved emotional well-being or stress reduction.
Looking ahead, Newberg and his team hope to continue studying a wide range of religious and spiritual practices. “We hope to more deeply understand how R/S affects us as individuals. There are implications on many levels, including health-related effects. For example, we can observe how such practices may reduce stress, anxiety, or depression. We can infer how the brain works as a complex network that supports various experiences we have about the world. And ultimately, there may be implications in terms of how we experience reality during various mental states, including mystical states.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.3389/fnimg.2024.1368537) Neuroimaging evaluation of the long term impact of a novel paired meditation practice on brain function,” was authored by Andrew B. Newberg, Nancy A. Wintering, Chloe Hriso, Faezeh Vedaei, Sara Gottfried, and Reneita Ross.

(https://www.psypost.org/probiotic-supplements-may-improve-working-memory/) Probiotic supplements may improve working memory
Dec 18th 2024, 14:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415x.2024.2425570) Nutritional Neuroscience examined how probiotic supplements, a prebiotic-rich diet, or their combination (synbiotic treatment) impact cognitive function in adults with low mood and dietary improvement potential. The randomized controlled trial provides tentative evidence that probiotic supplementation might improve working memory. However, the findings are preliminary, and the researchers emphasize the need for larger studies to confirm these effects.
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the gut-brain axis and its potential link to cognitive performance. The gut-brain axis is a complex, two-way communication system between the digestive system and the brain, mediated through neural, hormonal, and immune pathways.
At the center of this connection is the gut microbiota—trillions of microorganisms residing in the digestive tract—that play a key role in influencing brain function and behavior. These microbes produce various metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids and neurotransmitters, which can regulate inflammation, impact mood, and affect cognitive processes like memory and attention.
One way to influence the gut microbiota is through probiotics, which are live microorganisms that provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. Commonly delivered through supplements or fermented foods like yogurt and kefir, probiotics can help restore balance to the gut microbiota, enhance the production of beneficial metabolites, and reduce inflammation.
Some studies suggest that probiotics may improve cognitive function, particularly under stress or in clinical populations, by targeting pathways related to mood and brain health. However, the evidence remains inconsistent, with other studies reporting little or no cognitive improvements from probiotic use.
In addition to probiotics, prebiotics—non-digestible dietary fibers that serve as food for beneficial gut bacteria—have also been explored for their impact on the gut-brain axis. Found naturally in foods like whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and legumes, prebiotics encourage the growth and activity of healthy gut bacteria, leading to the production of compounds such as short-chain fatty acids that support brain function.
While prebiotic supplements have shown promise in improving aspects of cognition and mood, much of the research has relied on isolated supplements rather than whole-diet approaches. This distinction is important because diets rich in prebiotic foods may offer broader and more sustainable benefits for gut health.
To better understand whether gut-focused interventions could yield measurable improvements in mental health, the researchers behind the new study designed an 8-week randomized controlled trial to compare probiotic supplementation, a prebiotic-rich diet, and their combination in adults with low mood and room for dietary improvement.
“We were inspired by the (https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-017-0791-y) SMILES trial, which was the first RCT to demonstrate the strong potential for diet to improve symptoms of depression. Around the same time, we noted a growing body of literature on the impact of probiotic and prebiotic supplements on mental health, providing evidence for the involvement of the gut-brain axis,” said study author Tanya Freijy, a PhD candidate at the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health at The University of Melbourne, Australia.
“Yet, there was a gap in whole-diet approaches to improving gut health, and thereby potentially, mental health. We consulted with Professor Jane Muir, one of the lead researchers behind Monash University’s High Fibre, High Prebiotic Diet, and adapted this diet for use in our study.”
The study included 118 adults aged 18 to 65 who reported moderate psychological distress and consumed low amounts of prebiotic fiber in their daily diets. To participate, individuals had to meet specific health criteria, including avoiding probiotic supplements and fermented foods before the trial. Exclusion factors included gastrointestinal conditions, psychiatric disorders, pregnancy, or use of certain medications.
The participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups:

Probiotic group: Received probiotic supplements while maintaining their usual diet.
Prebiotic diet group: Followed a prebiotic-rich diet and received placebo capsules.
Synbiotic group: Received both the probiotic supplements and the high-prebiotic diet.
Placebo group: Took placebo capsules and continued their regular diet.

At the start and end of the trial, participants completed cognitive assessments using the Cogstate Brief Battery, a computerized test that measures processing speed, attention, visual learning, and working memory. Performance was evaluated based on reaction time and accuracy.
Probiotic supplementation appeared to have the most promising, albeit modest, effect. The results suggested a potential improvement in working memory, one of the core cognitive functions involved in holding and manipulating information over short periods. Participants in the probiotic group demonstrated a small improvement compared to the placebo group.
“However, the evidence remains inconclusive until replicated in larger studies, ideally with more complex measures of cognition,” Freijy told PsyPost.
In contrast, the prebiotic-rich diet showed weak evidence of impairing processing speed, which measures how quickly and accurately participants can respond to simple tasks. The prebiotic group performed slightly worse than the placebo group. However, the researchers caution that this finding may have been a statistical anomaly rather than a true negative effect, as no prior studies have reported cognitive impairments from prebiotics.
“The prebiotic-induced impairment in processing speed was unexpected and inconsistent with the positive effects the same dietary intervention had on mood, anxiety, sleep, and perceived stress in (https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2022.1097278/full) our previous publication,” Freijy explained. “Closer examination of the data indicates that this finding is most likely due to chance.”
When looking at the synbiotic group, which combined probiotic supplementation with the prebiotic-rich diet, there was no clear evidence of a synergistic or additive effect. In other words, combining the two interventions did not produce stronger cognitive outcomes than either treatment alone. The results indicated that the effects of the probiotic and prebiotic interventions, if present, were independent and did not interact significantly.
“Another unexpected finding was the lack of cognitive benefit from the synbiotic treatment (high-prebiotic diet plus probiotic supplement), contrary to our expectation that it would outperform the other interventions,” Freijy said.
The researchers noted that several limitations that may have influenced the findings. For instance, the sample size was relatively small, and the study was not specifically designed to measure cognitive effects. In addition, the participants were generally healthy, non-clinical adults, so cognitive performance may have been close to its natural ceiling. This could limit the scope for detecting improvements.
Despite these challenges, the researchers remain optimistic about the broader implications of their work. “We hope to link our microbiome analysis from this project (currently in preparation) with the changes we observed in mental health and cognition,” Freijy told PsyPost. “We look forward to publishing the microbiome findings in future. We also have a goal to publish further detail about our high prebiotic dietary protocol and feasibility of the diet for the benefit of future research and potentially clinical practice.”
“This study is one component of our larger gut-brain project, the Gut Feelings trial. Our (https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2022.1097278/full) primary publication on the mental health effects of our clinical trial is freely available online. We recommend The (https://foodandmoodcentre.com.au/) Food and Mood Centre, Deakin University, as a resource for learning about the field of nutritional psychiatry and the latest research being conducted on nutrition-based approaches to preventing and treating mental disorders.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415x.2024.2425570) The impact of a prebiotic-rich diet and/or probiotic supplements on human cognition: Secondary outcomes from the ‘Gut Feelings’ randomised controlled trial,” was authored by Tanya M. Freijy, Lachlan Cribb, Georgina Oliver, Najwa-Joelle Metri, Rachelle S. Opie, Felice N. Jacka, Jason A. Hawrelak, Julia J. Rucklidge, Chee H. Ng, and Jerome Sarris.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-examines-strategies-people-use-to-strengthen-desirable-friendships/) New study examines strategies people use to strengthen desirable friendships
Dec 18th 2024, 12:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-024-00410-6) Evolutionary Psychological Science reveals seven key strategies individuals use to strengthen friendships they consider desirable.
Friendships are a crucial aspect of human life, offering emotional and practical support that enhances well-being and survival. However, not all (https://www.psypost.org/friendships-are-driven-by-compatibility-and-support-across-cultures-study-finds/) friendships are equally (https://www.psypost.org/new-research-provides-insight-into-the-most-desired-and-undesired-personality-traits-in-friends/) desirable, and people may actively seek to strengthen bonds with those they consider most valuable.
Menelaos Apostolou and colleagues noted a significant gap in existing research, which has predominantly focused on maintaining friendships rather than the strategies people use to strengthen them. Drawing on an evolutionary framework, the authors hypothesized that these strategies likely center on demonstrating support and trust, key elements that foster deeper and more meaningful connections.
The research involved two complementary studies, recruiting Greek-speaking participants via social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram, as well as through word-of-mouth sharing among students and colleagues. Study 1 included 218 participants (117 women and 101 men), while Study 2 involved 434 individuals (257 women, 175 men).
In Study 1, participants responded to an open-ended question: “For various reasons, you are happy with your friendship with someone. Please indicate the actions that you would possibly take to strengthen this friendship.” Responses were collected online using Google Forms and subsequently coded by two independent researchers to identify distinct actions for strengthening friendships. Through iterative comparison and discussion, 54 unique acts were finalized as the foundation for the second study.
Study 2 utilized these 54 acts in a close-ended questionnaire format, where participants rated their likelihood of engaging in each action on a five-point scale. The questionnaire also included the Big Five Inventory to assess personality traits such as agreeableness, openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Participants’ demographic information, including age and sex, was also collected.
The researchers identified seven overarching strategies from the participants’ ratings of the 54 acts. These strategies included providing support, increasing interaction frequency, maintaining regular communication, giving gifts, showing trust, creating family ties, and showing agreement. Among these, providing support emerged as the most frequently endorsed strategy, reflecting participants’ willingness to assist friends emotionally, materially, or practically in times of need. More frequent interaction, such as planning shared activities, and frequent communication, such as calling or texting, also ranked highly.
The results revealed notable differences based on sex, age, and personality traits. Women were more likely than men to employ all seven strategies, and younger participants were particularly inclined to use trust-building and interaction-focused strategies. Personality played a significant role as well, with agreeableness strongly predicting the likelihood of using support-oriented strategies. Relatedly, openness was associated with a greater tendency to adopt multiple strategies.
One limitation is that participants self-reported their intentions, which might not always reflect actual behavior. Cultural specificity to Greek-speaking populations also limits generalizability.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-024-00410-6) Forging Close Friendships: Strategies for Strengthening Friendships People Consider Desirable, and the Role of Personality,” was authored by Menelaos Apostolou.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-finds-75-of-facebook-shares-are-made-without-reading-the-content/) Study finds 75% of Facebook shares are made without reading the content
Dec 18th 2024, 10:00

A new study has found that most social media users share links without clicking on them first, relying only on headlines and short summaries. The analysis, which examined over 35 million public Facebook posts, found that around 75% of shares occurred without users engaging with the full content. Notably, political content—especially from both extremes of the ideological spectrum—was more likely to be shared without being clicked than neutral content. The findings have been published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-02067-4) Nature Human Behavior.
The researchers aimed to understand how and why people share content on social media without reading it first. Social media platforms thrive on sharing, a behavior that drives engagement and allows content to go viral. However, the ease and speed of sharing mean users often act impulsively, spreading links based on superficial cues like headlines or the number of likes. This behavior can inadvertently contribute to the dissemination of misinformation, particularly in the political sphere. Previous research has suggested that people often form opinions from short snippets, creating an illusion of knowledge without truly understanding the content.
“The inspiration for our research is in understanding the phenomenon of sharing, which in my mind is the single most influential action on social media. Not only does sharing result in the multiplicative effect of information spreading through networks of individuals, it has in recent years fueled the epidemic of online misinformation,” said corresponding author (https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/people/individual/s.-shyam-sundar) S. Shyam Sundar, Evan Pugh University Professor and the James P. Jimirro Professor of Media Effects at Penn State.
“I have been interested in fellow online users acting as de facto communication sources ever since my dissertation back in 1995. With sharing features of social media, the ability of ordinary people to serve as sources of news and public affairs information has dramatically increased. What most people do not realize is that their friends and family on social media do not have the journalistic training to vet facts and double-check them before disseminating. We tend to be swayed by whatever they share.”
“In my lab group, we have long been interested in studying how deeply online users process information, how much thought they put into what they read and forward on social media and mobile phones,” Sundar told PsyPost. “So, when the opportunity arose to study sharing on a large scale with the URL Shares dataset released by Meta, which is the largest social science dataset ever assembled, we were obviously interested in exploring the sheer the volume of the phenomenon of sharing without clicking, which is an indicator of the superficiality of information processing.”
To investigate this phenomenon, the team analyzed a massive dataset provided by Facebook’s collaboration with Social Science One. The dataset included billions of interactions with over 35 million URLs shared on Facebook from 2017 to 2020. The team focused on the top 4,617 domains (such as CNN, Fox News, and The New York Times) and 35 million URLs shared on Facebook during this four-year period.
The researchers examined two main areas: the frequency of “shares without clicks” and the patterns of political content sharing. The data were separated into political and non-political content using a machine learning classifier trained to identify politically relevant keywords. Political content included URLs tied to elections, candidates, and other partisan topics, while non-political content ranged from entertainment to general news.
The team analyzed users’ sharing behaviors across different political leanings—liberal, neutral, and conservative—and examined whether users’ ideological alignment with the content influenced their likelihood of sharing it without clicking. They also looked specifically at fact-checked URLs to identify patterns in the spread of misinformation.
Across all 35 million URLs analyzed, approximately 75% of shares occurred without the users clicking on the link to view its full content. This trend was even stronger for political content, particularly at the ideological extremes. The spread of misinformation was particularly concerning. Fact-checked URLs identified as false were more likely to be shared without being clicked than true content.
“A key takeaway is that most of the shared links we encounter in Facebook are shared without first being read by the person sharing them,” Sundar explained. “This tells us that social media users and simply glancing at the headline and the blurb when deciding to blast a news link to their networks. Such dissemination can have a multiplicative effect and result in rapid spread of information to millions of folks online. This can result in vitality of misinformation, spreading fake news and conspiracy theories.”
The researchers observed another clear pattern: the more politically extreme the content, the more likely it was shared without being clicked. This trend held true for users across the political spectrum. In other words, whether content was strongly liberal or conservative, it attracted more superficial sharing compared to neutral content.
Users were more likely to share content that aligned with their political beliefs. For example, liberals were more likely to share left-leaning content without clicking, while conservatives were more likely to share right-leaning content. This suggests that users rely on headlines that confirm their existing biases, potentially bypassing the need to engage with the full content.
“The more politically extreme the content is, the more it is shared without being clicked upon first,” Sundar told PsyPost. “This is true for both extreme left and extreme right. As we know, there tends to be a lot of strong opinions and biased commentary on the extremes of the political spectrum. As such, there is more scope for fake news and conspiracy theories masquerading as legitimate news in politically extreme news domains.”
“In the dataset we accessed, there were 2,969 URLs that were fact-checked by a third party and determined to be false. The vast majority of these links were from conservative news domains and so unsurprisingly, we found that conservatives were five times more likely than liberals to share these links, most often without clicking on them and reading the false stories first. This suggests that if politically partisan users see a headline that seems aligned with their political ideology, they will readily share the story without bothering to verify if it is really true.”
The study highlights a concerning trend in how social media users interact with content. But it does have limitations. The analysis relied on aggregated data, meaning the researchers could not observe individual users’ behaviors directly. Some shares without clicks might still reflect deliberate actions—for example, resharing familiar content without revisiting it.
Additionally, the study focused only on Facebook, so it remains unclear whether similar patterns exist on other platforms like Twitter or Instagram. Future research could explore these behaviors on a broader scale and examine how different devices, such as mobile phones versus computers, influence users’ sharing habits.
The researchers suggest that these findings have significant implications for both social media platforms and users. Social media interfaces could be redesigned to encourage more deliberate sharing. For instance, platforms could implement prompts reminding users to read an article before sharing it or provide indicators showing whether a link has been clicked. These interventions could reduce the spread of misinformation and promote more thoughtful engagement with news content.
“If platforms implement a warning that the content might be false and make users acknowledge the danger in doing so, that might help people think before sharing,” Sundar said.
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-02067-4) Sharing without clicking on news in social media,” was authored by S. Shyam Sundar, Eugene Cho Snyder, Mengqi Liao, Junjun Yin, Jinping Wang, and Guangqing Chi.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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