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(https://www.psypost.org/symptoms-of-complex-ptsd-predict-the-appearance-of-psychotic-symptoms-in-daily-life-study-finds/) Symptoms of complex PTSD predict the appearance of psychotic symptoms in daily life, study finds
Dec 18th 2024, 08:00

A study of individuals suffering from both complex PTSD and psychosis found that disturbances of self-organization—a set of symptoms specific to complex PTSD—predicted the appearance of paranoid thoughts and hallucinations (both auditory and visual) within the next 90 minutes. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724001934) Psychological Medicine.
Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (complex PTSD) is a mental health condition that arises from prolonged or repeated exposure to traumatic events. These events typically involve interpersonal harm, such as abuse, neglect, or captivity. A defining characteristic of these events is that the person is unable to escape them.
Complex PTSD includes the core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder—re-experiencing the trauma, avoidance, and hyperarousal—along with additional difficulties in emotional regulation, self-perception, and relationships. These additional characteristics are referred to as disturbances of self-organization.
Traumatic life experiences also increase the risk of developing psychosis. Studies suggest that PTSD symptoms mediate the relationship between traumatic events and psychotic symptoms. Psychosis is a general term for various mental health conditions characterized by a loss of contact with reality, resulting in symptoms such as hallucinations (perceiving things that are not present) and delusions (strongly held false beliefs).
Study author Peter Panayi and his colleagues sought to examine the dynamic effects of complex PTSD on psychotic symptoms in individuals with both complex PTSD and a psychotic disorder within the schizophrenia spectrum. Schizophrenia spectrum disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech, abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms like reduced emotional expression or social withdrawal.
To investigate this, the researchers conducted an experience sampling study. The participants were 153 individuals from the Study of Trauma and Recovery (STAR) who consented to provide experience sampling data. All participants were diagnosed with PTSD and depression, but 75% also had at least one additional diagnosis, the most common being depression.
As part of a larger study, participants completed an extensive battery of assessments evaluating traumatic experiences, PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms, paranoid thoughts, and psychotic symptoms. Additionally, participants used a mobile app (m-Path) that delivered experience sampling questionnaires to their phones up to 10 times a day over six days during waking hours. For participants without smartphones or internet access, the researchers provided smartphones with preloaded SIM cards. Each experience sampling questionnaire consisted of 29 items assessing participants’ emotional states, current context, complex PTSD symptoms (core PTSD symptoms + disturbances of self-organization), and psychotic symptoms.
On average, participants completed approximately 60% of the experience sampling questionnaires. Symptoms of disturbances of self-organization at one time point predicted the appearance of paranoid thoughts and hallucinations (voices and visions) at the subsequent time point—typically within 90 minutes.
“This study highlights the profound impact of cPTSD [complex PTSD] on people with psychosis. Specifically, DSO [disturbance of self-organization] symptoms (i.e. emotional dysregulation, negative self-concept, and interpersonal difficulties) may maintain psychosis symptoms in the flow of daily life to an even greater extent than core PTSD symptoms. In turn, the exacerbation of distressing psychosis symptoms is in addition to the direct impact of these difficulties on individuals’ quality of life and daily functioning,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the connection between symptoms of complex PTSD and psychosis. However, it is important to note that the study relied on self-reports and required very frequent introspection over six days. While this frequent introspection is an inherent characteristic of this study design, it may have influenced the results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724001934) Complex PTSD symptoms predict positive symptoms of psychosis in the flow of daily life,” was authored by Peter Panayi, Emmanuelle Peters, Richard Bentall, Amy Hardy, Katherine Berry, William Sellwood, Robert Dudley, Eleanor Longden, Raphael Underwood, Craig Steel, Hassan Jafari, Richard Emsley, Liam Mason, Rebecca Elliott, and Filippo Varese.

(https://www.psypost.org/verbal-iq-predicts-political-participation-and-liberal-attitudes-twice-as-strongly-as-performance-iq/) Verbal IQ predicts political participation and liberal attitudes twice as strongly as performance IQ
Dec 18th 2024, 06:00

A new study published in (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160289624000709) Intelligence ((https://osf.io/bs7kx) PDF) has found that verbal intelligence—skills related to language, reasoning, and understanding—more strongly predicts voting, civic engagement, and political ideology than non-verbal (performance) intelligence. Researchers found that verbal intelligence has, on average, twice the influence of non-verbal intelligence on these socio-political attitudes and behaviors, even after accounting for education and family upbringing.
For over a century, research has shown a link between intelligence and various political and social attitudes, including voter turnout, religious beliefs, and ideology. Studies have suggested that (https://www.psypost.org/genetic-variations-help-explain-the-link-between-cognitive-ability-and-liberalism/) intelligence correlates with more liberal political attitudes, lower religiosity, and higher civic participation. However, most of this research focuses on general intelligence, which reflects overall cognitive ability.
What is less clear is which specific types of cognitive skills drive this relationship. Intelligence is not a single, uniform ability. It can be divided into different domains, such as verbal ability (skills related to language and reasoning with words) and performance ability (skills related to spatial and visual reasoning).
Philosopher Robert Nozick once argued that individuals with higher verbal skills—whom he called “wordsmiths”—are particularly likely to hold anti-capitalist views. He believed this was because those with verbal talents often excel in academic settings, which can foster a sense of entitlement and resentment when they see others achieve greater economic success through non-verbal or practical skills.
Other scholars have proposed that verbal ability might make political participation easier because it helps people engage with arguments and process the information needed to vote. Despite these ideas, few studies have rigorously compared verbal and non-verbal abilities in predicting political attitudes.
The researchers sought to address this gap by examining whether verbal IQ and performance IQ differ in their relationship with socio-political attitudes and behaviors. By doing so, they hoped to better understand how cognitive abilities influence political beliefs and engagement.
“Research suggests that cognitive abilities may influence our political attitudes and behaviors. The missing gap in our knowledge is an understanding of how and why intelligence matters. An appreciation of which cognitive abilities drive the association might shed light on the mechanisms by which intelligence influences social attitudes,” explained study author Tobias Edwards, a PhD student in behavioral genetics at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities.
For their new study, the researchers used data from two large cohorts collected by the Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research: the Minnesota Twin and Family Study (MTFS) and the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS). These studies included thousands of twins, siblings, and parents who completed measures of cognitive abilities and socio-political attitudes.
Cognitive abilities were assessed using subtests from the Wechsler intelligence scales, which are widely used standardized tests of IQ. Two subtests, Vocabulary and Information, were combined to measure verbal IQ. These tasks involved defining words and answering general knowledge questions. Two other subtests, Block Design and Picture Arrangement, were used to measure performance IQ, which involves solving visual puzzles and sequencing pictures into a logical order.
The researchers also examined various socio-political attitudes and behaviors, including:

Voter turnout: Self-reported voting behavior and government-validated voting records.
Civic engagement: Participation in community and political activities, such as volunteering or contacting politicians.
Religiosity: Importance of faith and frequency of religious practices.
Traditionalism: Support for moral standards and conservative family values.
Political ideology: Attitudes toward issues like authoritarianism, egalitarianism, fiscal conservatism, and social liberalism.

Edwards and his colleagues found that verbal IQ was consistently a stronger predictor of socio-political attitudes and behaviors than performance IQ. On average, the relationship between verbal IQ and socio-political attitudes was about twice as large as that of performance IQ.
Individuals with higher verbal IQ were more likely to vote in elections and participate in civic activities while being less inclined to endorse traditionalist and authoritarian values. They also tended to hold more liberal social attitudes and support egalitarian views.
In other words, those with higher verbal IQ were more likely to agree with statements such as:

“I feel responsible for my community.”
“More censorship of books and movies is a violation of free speech and should be abolished.”
“Strong, tough government will harm, not help, our country.”
“If wealth were more equal in this country, we would have many fewer problems.”
“The number of immigrants from foreign countries who are permitted to come to the United States to live should be left as is or even increased.”

Interestingly, verbal IQ and performance IQ were equally good at predicting scores on a separate measure of general intelligence (the ICAR-16 test), suggesting that the difference in their predictive power was not due to one measure being a better indicator of overall intelligence. Instead, the results point to the unique importance of verbal skills in shaping political beliefs and behaviors.
“Cognitive abilities are known to correlate with liberal political beliefs and voter turnout,” Edwards told PsyPost. “Our research shows verbal ability is twice as predictive as non-verbal ability. A plausible explanation is that verbal ability influences how people consider and judge political arguments.”
The findings also held up in more rigorous analyses. For example, when the researchers compared siblings within the same family, the sibling with higher verbal IQ was still more likely to vote and hold less traditionalist views. Similarly, these patterns held even after accounting for education levels.
“The relationship between verbal ability and socio-political attitudes cannot be easily explained away by education,” Edwards explained. “We also find the same results within pairs of siblings raised in the same household. This means that upbringing cannot adequately account for verbal ability’s association with socio-political attitudes.”
While the study provides strong evidence for the role of verbal ability in socio-political attitudes, it also has some limitations. The sample primarily consisted of individuals from Minnesota, most of whom were of European descent. This raises questions about whether the findings generalize to other populations with different cultural or demographic backgrounds.
Additionally, the study did not disentangle the specific mechanisms linking verbal ability to political engagement. For instance, verbal skills might influence how individuals process political arguments, identify social norms, or justify their beliefs. Future research could explore these pathways in more detail.
“We can think of verbal ability as being caused by a combination of general intelligence and a unique aptitude for verbal tasks,” Edwards noted. “This unique part we call a group factor. Likewise, non-verbal ability can be considered as general intelligence plus a non-verbal group factor. While we have shown that verbal ability is more predictive of liberal attitudes than non-verbal ability, that does not necessarily mean the verbal group factor is associated with liberal attitudes. The same result could be attained if the non-verbal group factor causes illiberal attitudes.”
“Those with greater verbal ability report voting more and being more engaged in civic affairs, suggesting they may have more influence over society,” Edwards added. “An apocryphal quote, often ascribed to the intelligence researcher Edward Thorndike, states: ‘Colors fade, temples crumble, empires fall, but wise words endure.’ The power of wise words is reassuring to those sympathetic to the wordsmiths, although others will wonder whether the gift of gab is all too easily confused with wisdom.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2024.101876) More than g: Verbal and performance IQ as predictors of socio-political attitudes,” was authored by Tobias Edwards, Christopher T. Dawes, Emily A. Willoughby, Matt McGue, and James J. Lee.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-discover-a-weird-fact-about-people-with-no-sense-of-smell/) Scientists discover a weird fact about people with no sense of smell
Dec 17th 2024, 18:00

A recent study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52650-6) Nature Communications has uncovered that individuals with congenital anosmia—a condition where a person is born without the ability to smell—exhibit altered patterns of nasal breathing compared to those with a normal sense of smell. These differences persist during both waking hours and sleep, and the findings suggest that disrupted airflow may play a role in some of the health challenges associated with anosmia.
While the human sense of smell is often undervalued, its loss can significantly reduce quality of life. People with anosmia commonly report emotional difficulties, dietary changes, and even a higher risk of mortality. Despite these serious outcomes, the underlying reasons remain unclear. Researchers have long known that the human nose serves two functions: smelling and breathing. Odors influence how we breathe—for example, unpleasant smells often cause us to inhale less deeply. Given this connection, the researchers hypothesized that individuals with anosmia might experience altered patterns of nasal airflow. These changes, they speculated, could contribute to the negative health outcomes associated with anosmia.
To test their hypothesis, the researchers used a wearable device capable of measuring nasal airflow with high precision. This device logged data continuously over 24 hours and recorded subtle variations in breathing patterns.
The study involved two groups: 21 participants with isolated congenital anosmia (no sense of smell since birth) and 31 participants with a normal sense of smell. The researchers ensured that participants with anosmia had no other medical issues causing their condition, such as trauma or sinus disease. Each participant’s sense of smell was confirmed using a standardized test, and those with anosmia also showed a lack of olfactory bulbs—structures in the brain responsible for processing smell.
Participants wore the device during their usual daily activities and kept a diary to track their sleep and wake times. Using this data, the researchers analyzed patterns of nasal airflow, focusing on differences between those with and without anosmia.
The results showed significant differences in nasal airflow between the two groups. While the overall breathing rate—measured in breaths per minute—was similar, the patterns within each breath were notably altered in individuals with anosmia.
One key finding was that people with a normal sense of smell displayed a higher number of “inhalation peaks” during the day. Inhalation peaks refer to subtle bursts of air intake within a single breath, which likely reflect sniffing—a natural behavior used to explore and respond to smells. On average, individuals without anosmia had about 240 more inhalation peaks per hour while awake compared to those with anosmia. Interestingly, when people with a normal sense of smell were placed in an odor-free environment, their breathing patterns resembled those of individuals with anosmia. This suggests that the increased inhalation peaks in people with normal olfaction are driven by their interaction with environmental smells.
The study also found differences in other respiratory features. Individuals with anosmia showed:

More frequent pauses during inhalation while awake.
Lower exhalation flow rates during wakefulness.
Greater variation in the volume of air inhaled during sleep.

These findings indicate that anosmia is associated with altered nasal airflow patterns that persist even during sleep, when smell plays a minimal role.
The researchers further tested whether these breathing differences could be used to classify anosmia. Using machine learning, they entered the most significant respiratory parameters into a model and achieved an impressive 83% accuracy in distinguishing participants with anosmia from those with a normal sense of smell.
The findings offer a new perspective on how anosmia might impact health. Since nasal airflow influences brain activity, emotion, and cognition, the altered breathing patterns seen in anosmia could have far-reaching consequences. For example, sniffing behaviors, which appear reduced in anosmia, are thought to help regulate brain activity, particularly in regions related to attention and memory. Additionally, irregular airflow during sleep could affect overall respiratory health.
However, the study has some limitations. For one, the device measured only nasal airflow, not mouth breathing, which may have provided a more complete picture of respiratory patterns. The study also relied on participants’ self-reported activities, which may introduce minor inaccuracies. Additionally, while the research highlights differences in airflow, it cannot determine whether these changes directly cause the health issues associated with anosmia. Future studies could compare individuals with congenital anosmia to those who develop anosmia later in life to explore how breathing patterns evolve over time.
Despite these limitations, the study provides evidence that the absence of smell affects how people breathe. The altered respiratory patterns observed in anosmia may help explain why this condition is linked to broader health challenges. By revealing a new connection between smell and breathing, the study challenges the idea that olfaction is an “unimportant” sense and opens the door to further research into the far-reaching effects of nasal airflow on health and behavior.
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52650-6) Humans without a sense of smell breathe differently,” was authored by Lior Gorodisky, Danielle Honigstein, Aharon Weissbrod, Reut Weissgross, Timna Soroka, Sagit Shushan, and Noam Sobel.

(https://www.psypost.org/ecologists-are-rethinking-the-significance-of-alcohol-in-animal-diets/) Ecologists are rethinking the significance of alcohol in animal diets
Dec 17th 2024, 16:00

Alcohol consumption by humans is a well-documented aspect of history and culture, but it appears humans might not be the only species regularly exposed to ethanol. A recent review in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2024.09.005) Trends in Ecology & Evolution explores how ethanol, naturally present in ecosystems worldwide, could be a routine part of the diets of many animals.
The authors argue that the consumption of ethanol by animals might be more common and ecologically significant than previously believed, challenging the prevailing assumption that such behavior is rare or accidental.
“We’re moving away from this anthropocentric view that ethanol is just something that humans use,” says behavioral ecologist and senior author Kimberley Hockings of the University of Exeter. “It’s much more abundant in the natural world than we previously thought, and most animals that eat sugary fruits are going to be exposed to some level of ethanol.”
Ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, is a chemical compound formed when yeast ferments sugars. Yeast, particularly species like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, evolved to produce ethanol as a defense mechanism against bacterial competitors. This process has been occurring for about 100 million years, coinciding with the emergence of sugar-rich fruits, nectars, and saps from flowering plants. These sugary substances serve as substrates for yeast fermentation, making ethanol a naturally occurring element in virtually every ecosystem.
The concentration of ethanol in the wild varies widely depending on factors like climate and the specific plant species involved. For example, ethanol levels in fruits and nectars can range from trace amounts to over 10% in some cases. In tropical environments, where warm and humid conditions favor fermentation, ethanol concentrations are generally higher.
Ethanol is also present in floral nectars, which are often consumed by insects and birds, and in overripe or fallen fruits, which may attract a variety of animals.
In their review article, the researchers highlight several reasons why animals might ingest ethanol, often as an incidental or intentional byproduct of their regular feeding habits:
1. Accidental or incidental ingestion
For many animals, ethanol consumption is likely unintentional. Ethanol can be present in the fruits and nectars they naturally consume, especially if these foods are fermenting. Anecdotal accounts abound of animals appearing intoxicated after eating such foods—for example, birds crashing into objects after consuming fermented berries or moose getting stuck in trees after eating fermented apples. However, the researchers caution that these events, while dramatic, are not the norm and do not reflect most animals’ typical interactions with ethanol.
2. Nutritional benefits
Ethanol itself is a calorie-rich molecule, providing energy to animals. While fermentation reduces the total caloric content of sugary foods, the resulting ethanol still offers a significant energy source. Animals might also use ethanol as a chemical cue to locate high-sugar food sources, particularly in environments where food is scarce or competition is high.
“From an ecological perspective, it is not advantageous to be inebriated as you’re climbing around in the trees or surrounded by predators at night—that’s a recipe for not having your genes passed on,” says molecular ecologist and senior author Matthew Carrigan of the College of Central Florida. “It’s the opposite of humans who want to get intoxicated but don’t really want the calories—from the non-human perspective, the animals want the calories but not the inebriation.”
3. Medicinal properties
Low levels of ethanol can have antimicrobial properties, potentially helping animals fend off infections or parasites. For instance, some insects, like vinegar flies, are known to lay their eggs in ethanol-rich environments, which helps protect their offspring from parasitic attacks. This form of “self-medication” could extend to other species, though more research is needed to confirm such behavior in vertebrates.
4. Behavioral and social effects
Ethanol can influence animal behavior in ways that might have evolutionary benefits. For example, ethanol’s ability to reduce anxiety and increase sociability could enhance group cohesion or mating opportunities in some species. However, the researchers note that such effects come with risks, as ethanol also impairs coordination and decision-making, potentially increasing an animal’s vulnerability to predators or environmental hazards.
“On the cognitive side, ideas have been put forward that ethanol can trigger the endorphin and dopamine system, which leads to feelings of relaxation that could have benefits in terms of sociality,” says behavioral ecologist and first author Anna Bowland of the University of Exeter. “To test that, we’d really need to know if ethanol is producing a physiological response in the wild.”
The researchers highlighted significant gaps in our understanding of how animals interact with ethanol in nature. Future studies could investigate the abundance of ethanol in ecosystems and its relationship with environmental factors like climate and plant species. They could also explore why some animals are attracted to fermented foods while others avoid them, as well as the health impacts and genetic adaptations related to ethanol consumption. Additionally, research into the evolutionary role of ethanol and the effects of human activities on its availability could offer valuable insights into its ecological and evolutionary significance.
The article, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2024.09.005) The evolutionary ecology of ethanol,” was authored by Anna C. Bowland, Amanda D. Melin, David J. Hosken, Kimberley J. Hockings, and Matthew A. Carrigan.

(https://www.psypost.org/dont-think-of-a-pink-elephant-brain-activity-predicts-how-vividly-youll-see-involuntary-mental-images/) Don’t think of a pink elephant: Brain activity predicts how vividly you’ll see involuntary mental images
Dec 17th 2024, 14:00

“Tell a man he shouldn’t think of a pink elephant and he can’t get that beast out of his mind!”
This (https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/City_in_the_Sky/GvRQAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=pink%20elephant&dq=city%20in%20the%20sky&printsec=frontcover) quote, from Curt Siodmak’s 1974 novel City in the Sky, describes how hard it can be to suppress our thoughts. “Don’t think of a pink elephant” has become a classic example of how difficult it can be to intentionally avoid visualising.
Research (https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.53.1.5) suggests many of you, having read about a pink elephant, will have imagined seeing one.
However, some people, like us, have aphantasia – we cannot visualise. So we are a little confused at the idea other people can imagine seeing things that aren’t there.
In a (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2024.10.020) new study, we have found evidence the pink elephant problem is not universal. Some people – including people with aphantasia – can block involuntary visual thoughts from their minds.
What is aphantasia?
People with aphantasia cannot voluntarily imagine seeing things in our mind’s eye. So if you ask us not to think about a pink elephant, we won’t visualise one, because we can’t.
Aphantasia is typically described as a deficit. When people first learn they have aphantasia they are often upset, as they realise other people can do things they cannot. It might be nice to imagine seeing the characters described in a book, for example, or to visualise an absent loved one.
However, deficits are often balanced by benefits. There are (https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.0267?) suggestions people with aphantasia (or aphantasics, as we’re sometimes called) may have a heightened resistance to involuntary intrusive thoughts.
Another way to look at it is that aphantasics are one portion of a natural diversity of human minds, with people having different capacities to visualise. Where aphantasics have no capacity, most people would have an average ability, and a small number of people would have an extremely strong ability to visualise.
Vivid mental imagery and involuntary visualisations
In our new study, we looked at links between the intensity of people’s visual imaginations and their tendency to visualise, even when they try not to. People with vivid visual imaginations were more likely to have involuntary visualisations, and we could predict these outcomes by measuring brain activity.
Some people might enjoy being able to imagine seeing detailed scenes whenever they wish. However, this seems to come at the cost of not being able to shut down these experiences.
Most people have less vibrant imagery, but they seem to be more able to suppress these thoughts.
Do aphantasics have peaceful minds?
Aphantasics are unlikely to have involuntary visualisations. Does that mean they have peaceful minds?
In our study people who reported having weak imagery were less likely to imagine seeing things they were trying not to think about. However, they were more likely to report mind-wandering.
If this describes aphantasics, instead of visualising things we are told not to think about, we may turn our minds to other thoughts, such as what’s for dinner. So we would not have more peaceful minds, just a resistance to think about things we are trying to put out of mind.
If aphantasics do not visualise, do they have daydreams?
>From our own experience, we can confirm at least some aphantasics have minds that wander. But when our minds wander, neither of us imagines seeing things. Our experiences are different.
When Derek’s mind wanders he imagines hearing and engaging in purely audio conversations. As daydreaming is typically associated with vision, he did not realise until very recently these imagined conversations could be described as his experience of daydreaming.
Loren cannot visualise or imagine hearing things. She experiences her thoughts as different sensations of texture and imagined feelings of movement – and these are what she experiences when her mind wanders.
Are aphantasics resistant to trauma from re-living events?
Perhaps.
While our evidence suggests aphantasics are resistant to involuntary visualisations, more research will be needed to work out if we are resistant to reliving traumas, or if these will simply trigger different types of imagined experience.
What is clear is that Siodmak was wrong. If you tell people they shouldn’t think of a pink elephant, some of us will happily put that beast out of our minds, and turn our thoughts to other matters. What’s for dinner?
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/the-pink-elephant-test-what-your-visual-imagination-predicts-about-your-ability-to-control-your-thoughts-244274) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/self-protection-motives-bias-legal-decisions-against-physically-formidable-men/) Self-protection motives bias legal decisions against physically formidable men
Dec 17th 2024, 12:00

Women with heightened beliefs in a dangerous world recommended harsher minimum sentences for physically strong male defendants compared to weaker ones, according to a new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-024-00402-6) Evolutionary Psychological Science.
Throughout human history, the ability to detect and respond to potential (https://www.psypost.org/womens-interest-in-strong-men-adapts-to-environmental-cues-of-potential-threat/) threats has been critical for survival. One significant cue used to infer threat potential is men’s physical formidability, which is often linked with aggression.
While these threat detection heuristics have evolutionary advantages, they may lead to biases in modern contexts, such as legal decision-making. Legal systems aim to eliminate bias, but judgments rooted in ancestral survival mechanisms may interfere with this goal.
Researchers Bridget A. O’Neil and Mitch Brown sought to understand how women’s self-protection motives, shaped by beliefs about a dangerous world, influence their punitive decisions against physically strong men in a legal setting.
The study included 214 undergraduate students (108 men, 106 women) from a large public university in the southeastern United States. Participants, aged 18-23, completed tasks in a mock jury paradigm. They were presented with a vignette describing a male defendant convicted of first-degree aggravated assault. The scenario detailed an unprovoked attack outside a bar, during which the defendant physically assaulted the victim, leaving them hospitalized with severe injuries.
The mock jurors were tasked with recommending minimum and maximum sentences for the defendant based on the described case. Participants were randomly assigned to view one of two images of the defendant: one manipulated to depict a physically strong man and the other a physically weak man. The images were standardized, using the same facial features paired with either a strong or weak body, to ensure that only perceptions of physical formidability varied between conditions.
Participants evaluated the defendant’s perceived strength, aggression, and dangerousness on seven-point scales to confirm the manipulation of formidability. Additionally, participants completed the Belief in a Dangerous World (BDW) Scale, which measures individuals’ dispositional beliefs about the prevalence of danger and violence in the world.
The study’s manipulation checks revealed that participants reliably perceived the “strong” defendant as stronger, more aggressive, and more dangerous compared to the “weak” defendant, validating the experimental design.
Gender differences emerged in how self-protection motives influence sentencing decisions. Women’s BDW scores significantly predicted their leniency, or lack thereof, toward the physically strong defendant. Women with higher BDW scores, indicating heightened self-protection motives, were less likely to recommend the minimum sentence for the strong defendant compared to the weak one. In contrast, women with lower BDW scores showed greater leniency toward the strong defendant, possibly reflecting a focus on the benefits of strength, such as protection, in the absence of heightened threat sensitivity.
For men, BDW scores did not significantly influence sentencing recommendations, nor did they show differential treatment of strong versus weak defendants. This lack of effect suggests that men’s punitive decisions may be less shaped by self-protection motives or perceptions of formidability.
Interestingly, no significant differences were observed in the maximum sentence recommendations for either men or women, potentially indicating that participants were more influenced by minimum sentencing decisions.
Of note is that participants were primarily college-aged individuals, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to actual juries, typically composed of older adults. Additionally, the focus on a single crime type (i.e., aggravated assault) may not capture the full range of biases present in legal contexts involving other crimes.
Overall, this study demonstrates how evolutionary self-protection mechanisms can shape modern legal judgments, underscoring the challenge of balancing fairness in legal proceedings with deeply ingrained threat detection systems.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-024-00402-6) Women’s Dangerous World Beliefs Predict Biases Against Formidable Men in Legal Domains,” was authored by Bridget A. O’Neil and Mitch Brown.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-reveals-the-surprising-volume-of-mental-health-cases-in-primary-care/) New study reveals the surprising volume of mental health cases in primary care
Dec 17th 2024, 10:00

An analysis of Norway’s primary healthcare records revealed that 12% of patient encounters between 2006 and 2019 were for mental health conditions. This is comparable to the volume of primary care encounters for infections, cardiovascular, or respiratory conditions. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00310-5) Nature Mental Health.
Primary healthcare serves as the first point of contact for individuals within the healthcare system. Primary care physicians treat a wide range of health conditions, both acute and chronic. They also provide preventive care, vaccinations, health education, and early disease detection. By addressing most health needs close to where people live and work, primary healthcare reduces the burden on specialized and emergency services.
It is also the first point of contact for mental health disorders. Despite this, many primary care physicians feel ill-equipped to handle these conditions and often refer patients to psychiatric services. However, in many countries, psychiatric care is provided exclusively through secondary and tertiary healthcare, which can be less accessible. As a result, primary care physicians are often expected to provide at least some level of mental health care, particularly for mild mental health issues.
Study author Avshalom Caspi and his colleagues aimed to explore how frequently mental health conditions appear in primary healthcare. They note that while mental health conditions are rising globally, effective treatment coverage remains low. Strengthening the ability of primary care physicians to address mental health issues may be one way to improve the situation.
The researchers analyzed Norway’s primary healthcare records, an extensive dataset containing information on primary care encounters for 4,875,722 individuals born in Norway between 1905 and 2017. All residents of Norway are assigned a primary care physician, and access to specialist care typically requires a referral.
The work of primary care physicians in Norway is funded by the Norwegian Health Economics Administration. To receive payment, physicians must report at least one primary diagnosis or reason for each patient visit. This requirement makes it highly likely that all patient encounters and diagnoses are accurately recorded. Caspi and his team analyzed these diagnoses for patient visits reported between 2006 and 2019.
The results showed that 47% of registered users sought primary care for a mental health condition during the study period. These individuals experienced a wide range of psychological difficulties. For children, the most common reasons for visits were sleep disturbances, continence issues, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Younger and middle-aged adults most often sought care for depression, while older adults most frequently reported memory difficulties and sleep disturbances.
Mental health conditions accounted for just under 12% of all patient encounters in primary care. The most common mental health conditions were depression (23.8%) and anxiety (14.1%), followed by sleep disturbances (12.1%), substance abuse (8.3%), acute stress reactions (7.1%), psychosis (6.9%), dementia/memory problems (5.4%), ADHD (3.8%), phobias/compulsive disorders (1.7%), developmental delays/learning problems (1.5%), PTSD (1.3%), and personality disorders (1.1%).
When compared to other medical conditions, the volume of mental health encounters was roughly equal to the number of visits for infections, cardiovascular conditions, and respiratory issues. Mental health encounters were also more frequent than visits for pain, injuries, metabolic issues, skin conditions, or urological and reproductive health concerns.
“These primary care physicians are the gatekeepers,” said Caspi, the Edward M. Arnett Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Duke University.  “The primary care physician data allows us to actually see people at their first contact with the healthcare system.”
“This report underscores what has become increasingly evident in medicine: without targeted efforts to expand mental health services within the primary care setting, the medical system will not meet the mental health needs of those that it serves,” added Damon Tweedy, a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke Health, who was not involved in this study.
The study highlights the significant proportion of patient encounters related to mental health within primary healthcare. However, while the findings are based on an exhaustive record database, they pertain specifically to Norway. Results in other countries may differ.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00310-5) A nationwide analysis of 350 million patient encounters reveals a high volume of mental-health conditions in primary care,” was authored by Avshalom Caspi, Renate M. Houts, Terrie E. Moffitt, Leah S. Richmond-Rakerd, Matthew R. Hanna, Hans Fredrik Sunde, and Fartein Ask Torvik.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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