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(https://www.psypost.org/why-do-more-boys-have-autism-new-study-uncovers-genetic-differences/) Why do more boys have autism? New study uncovers genetic clues
Aug 14th 2024, 10:00

Autism spectrum disorder has long been known to affect more boys than girls. But why this difference exists has remained a puzzle. A new study out of Sweden may provide some answers, suggesting that the underlying genetic factors contributing to autism might vary between boys and girls.
The study, published in (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2817601) JAMA Psychiatry, found that heritability — the proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic differences — was significantly higher in boys than in girls. This finding points to the possibility that boys and girls might develop autism through different genetic pathways.
Autism spectrum disorder is a complex neurodevelopmental condition characterized by challenges in social communication, repetitive behaviors, and often a range of other cognitive and sensory sensitivities. The term “spectrum” reflects the wide variety of symptoms and severity that can manifest in individuals with the disorder.
Some people with autism may have exceptional abilities in areas like music, art, or mathematics, while others may have significant difficulties in daily functioning. The exact causes of autism remain largely unknown, but it is widely accepted that both genetic and environmental factors play a role in its development.
The motivation behind the study stems from a long-standing observation that autism is more commonly diagnosed in boys than in girls, with boys being about four times more likely to receive a diagnosis. This significant difference in prevalence between the sexes has puzzled researchers for years.
Previous research has proposed various theories to explain this sex difference, including the female protective effect, which suggests that girls might need a higher genetic burden to develop autism spectrum disorder. Another theory, the greater genetic variability in males, posits that boys might be more susceptible to developing the disorder due to their broader genetic diversity. The study was motivated by a desire to test these theories.
“The causes of autism remain unknown, but genetic causes, inherited directly from the parents, also play a major role. No single gene can explain autism, but the disorder is believed to be influenced by multiple genes (polygenic) and often interacts with environmental factors. A key feature of autism is the skewed sex ratio, with a significantly higher risk for boys. However, it is unclear why males are more likely to be diagnosed than females,” said study author (https://ki.se/en/research/research-areas-centres-and-networks/research-groups/autism-and-perinatal-epidemiology-sven-sandin-research-group#tab-staff-and-contact) Sven Sandin, an associate professor at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and a senior researcher at the Karolinska Institutet.
“One way to understand the sex difference is through differences in genetic variance – a model that has rarely been considered and that we tested in the current study using epidemiological methods. This model suggests that males have higher genetic variance than females, meaning that more males than females are randomly exposed to a higher genetic load. This could explain why males are more likely to be diagnosed with autism than females without invoking the female protective effect (FPE), a more commonly used theory to explain the skewed ratio in autism. According to FPE, females are more resilient than males and can withstand a higher genetic burden before being diagnosed. However, results from previous studies have shown inconsistent findings regarding the FPE, including a recent study we conducted.”
“Finding a useful biological model to explain sex differences in risk is critical to understanding the underlying biological mechanisms that lead to the development of sex-specific prevention strategies and treatments,” Sandin explained. “By better understanding the biological basis for sex differences in disease, we can also work to reduce health disparities between men and women. It can also help guide research into the development of sex-specific animal models to improve the translation of research findings to humans.”
“Thus, a biological model that explains sex differences in disease risk is essential for advancing health care, reducing health disparities, and advancing our knowledge of human biology.”
To conduct this study, the researchers analyzed data from an extensive population-based registry in Sweden. The study included over 1 million children born between 1985 and 1998, all of whom were followed until they reached 19 years old. By focusing on a large cohort, the researchers aimed to generate more reliable estimates of heritability for both boys and girls. Importantly, they restricted the sample to children born to Swedish parents and excluded twins, as twins present additional complexities in genetic studies due to their shared genetic makeup.
Autism spectrum disorder diagnoses were identified through Sweden’s National Patient Register, which includes comprehensive records of all inpatient and outpatient diagnoses since 1987. Diagnoses were made based on standardized assessments conducted at regular medical and developmental check-ups. The researchers then calculated heritability using statistical models that considered both genetic and environmental factors.
The findings revealed that the heritability of autism was about 87% in boys, compared to approximately 76% in girls. This difference of 11% between the sexes is statistically significant and suggests that genetic factors play a more substantial role in the development of autism in boys than in girls. The researchers believe that these results could indicate different underlying causes for the disorder between the two sexes, with boys possibly being more vulnerable to genetic risk factors.
“We expected to see a greater difference in heritability between males and females with autism, as we expected non-additive genetic factors, such as gene-gene interactions or epigenetic modifications, to be more influential in females than in males,” Sandin told PsyPost. “However, our results suggest that additive genetic factors, such as single nucleotide variants, are still the major contributors to autism risk in both sexes, accounting for about 75% of the variance in females and 87% in males.”
The study’s results are significant because they challenge the prevailing notion that autism has the same genetic basis in boys and girls. The fact that heritability is higher in boys suggests that the genetic architecture of autism might differ by sex. This could mean that different genetic variants or combinations of variants are responsible for the development of the disorder in boys and girls.
“The study is a step forward in understanding autism risk and guiding future research on sex differences in autism risk,” Sandin said, noting that “the study does not provide information about individual risk.”
Despite the study’s strengths, including its large sample size and population-based design, there are some limitations to consider. The study only included children of Swedish origin, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Additionally, the study did not account for all possible environmental factors that could influence the development of autism, such as prenatal exposure to toxins or early-life stressors. While the researchers adjusted for certain variables, such as parental age, there may still be unmeasured factors that could affect the results.
“A single study, no matter how large or well done, cannot provide incontrovertible evidence,” Sandin said. “Therefore, this study must be replicated using data from other health systems and populations.”
Future research could build on these findings by exploring the specific genetic variants that contribute to the development of autism in boys and girls. Additionally, studies could investigate whether different environmental factors interact with genetic risk factors to influence the development of the disorder in each sex. Understanding these interactions could help identify more targeted interventions and treatments for autism, tailored to the unique genetic and environmental profiles of boys and girls.
The study also raises questions about the clinical implications of the findings. If boys and girls have different genetic pathways leading to autism, this could have implications for diagnosis and treatment. For example, it is possible that the current diagnostic criteria, which are based primarily on studies of boys, may not fully capture the way autism manifests in girls. This could lead to underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis of girls with the disorder. Further research could help refine diagnostic criteria to better account for these potential differences.
“Our long-term goal is to improve the understanding of the causes of autism to a level that will help families, affected individuals and clinicians to better understand the underlying causes,” Sandin said. “This can reduce emotional distress and stigma in society and potentially lead to improved treatment and intervention for groups of individuals with autism. To this end, we are using autism diagnoses and health, medical, family and demographic data from the large national registers in the Nordic countries. Examples of such studies include the risk associated with preterm birth and maternal conditions.”
“This type of research relies on the availability of reliable data and modern epidemiological and statistical methods, applied by a large international network of experts in different fields, and can only be carried out with significant funding.”
The study, “(https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2817601) Examining Sex Differences in Autism Heritability,” was authored by Sven Sandin, Benjamin H. K. Yip, Weiyao Yin, Lauren A. Weiss, Joseph D. Dougherty, Stuart Fass, John N. Constantino, Zhu Hailin, Tychele N. Turner, Natasha Marrus, David H. Gutmann, Stephan J. Sanders, and Benjamin Christoffersson.

(https://www.psypost.org/cannabis-use-is-associated-with-psychotic-symptoms-in-between-2-and-21-of-users/) Cannabis use is associated with psychotic symptoms in between 2% and 21% of users
Aug 14th 2024, 08:00

An analysis of numerous studies on cannabis use revealed that between 2% and 21% of users experienced psychotic symptoms after consuming cannabis. The highest rates were reported by experimental studies that administered tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), while the lowest (2%) were observed in studies assessing medicinal cannabis. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00261-x) Nature Mental Health.
Cannabis is a plant genus that includes three species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. It is known for its psychoactive and medicinal properties, primarily due to compounds like THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). Cannabis is used both recreationally and medicinally, with effects ranging from relaxation and euphoria to pain relief and reduced anxiety. Its legal status varies widely around the world, with some regions permitting its use and others imposing strict prohibitions.
In some individuals, cannabis use can lead to the development of psychotic symptoms, known as cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms. These symptoms can include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, particularly in those predisposed to mental health issues. High doses of THC, the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis, are more likely to trigger these symptoms. While some people may experience these effects temporarily, in certain cases, cannabis use can trigger or exacerbate long-term psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia.
Study author Tabea Schoeler and her colleagues sought to integrate the findings of various studies on cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms to better understand how often they develop and under what conditions. They note that increasingly liberal cannabis policies worldwide make it crucial to have this information to prevent the harmful effects of cannabis use. Another significant trend is the rising concentration of THC in cannabis products over time, which has stronger psychoactive properties compared to CBD.
The researchers searched three scientific databases—PubMed, Embase, and Psychinfo—resulting in 20,428 potential texts. After excluding those that did not meet the criteria for inclusion, the analysis was conducted on 162 studies involving a total of 210,283 participants.
These studies could be categorized into four types: observational research, assessments of medical cannabis products, experimental studies administering THC, and quasi-experimental studies (which compare situations of cannabis use to non-use by observing individuals using or not using cannabis of their own accord). The vast majority of study participants were from observational research; 16% were involved in studies assessing medical cannabis; experimental studies included just under 1% of participants, while quasi-experimental studies involved only 0.2%.
Of these studies, 99 reported data on cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms. This included 41 observational studies (involving 92,888 cannabis users), 19 experimental studies administering THC (754 participants), and 79 studies assessing the efficacy and tolerability of medicinal cannabis products (32,821 participants). In medicinal cannabis studies, the products were most often used to treat pain and cancer. Participants in observational and experimental studies were primarily in their 20s and 30s, while the average age of individuals in medicinal cannabis assessment studies was 48 years.
The results showed that the reported percentage of participants developing cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms varied greatly between studies. The share was highest in experimental studies, around 21%, high in observational studies at 19%, and lowest in medicinal cannabis assessment studies at 2%.
Individuals more likely to experience cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms included those who received THC, individuals with preexisting mental health issues, those with higher dopamine activity, younger individuals, and females.
The study provides valuable insights into the psychotic symptoms that can develop as a consequence of cannabis use. However, it should be noted that the experimental studies, which reported the highest rates of psychotic symptoms, administered THC—the cannabis component known for its potent psychoactive properties—while studies reporting lower rates likely used other forms of cannabis with much lower THC concentrations.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00261-x) Assessing rates and predictors of cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms across observational, experimental and medical research,” was authored by Tabea Schoeler, Jessie R. Baldwin, Ellen Martin, Wikus Barkhuizen, and Jean-Baptiste Pingault.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-uncover-biological-pathway-that-could-revolutionize-anxiety-treatment/) Scientists uncover biological pathway that could revolutionize anxiety treatment
Aug 14th 2024, 06:00

In a groundbreaking new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2400078121) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, scientists have uncovered a biological pathway in the brain that is highly sensitive to chronic stress and plays a critical role in anxiety-like behaviors. By manipulating this pathway in mice, the team was able to reverse anxiety symptoms, providing a potential new target for therapeutic strategies against anxiety and depression.
Anxiety and depression are among the most common mental health disorders globally, affecting roughly one-third of the population. Despite the availability of treatments like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (which increase serotonin levels in the brain) and drugs targeting gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (which enhance inhibitory neurotransmission), these treatments have significant drawbacks. They can take weeks to become effective, may cause unwanted side effects, and often fail to work for a substantial number of patients.
The researchers sought to find a more targeted approach to treating anxiety by focusing on the specific molecular pathways directly involved in the stress response. Chronic stress is known to cause changes in the brain that contribute to the development of anxiety and depression, but the exact mechanisms have remained elusive. By identifying the precise pathways affected by stress, the researchers hoped to find new ways to intervene and potentially develop more effective treatments.
“Stress and anxiety are among the most prevalent neurological disorders affecting the public, and the recent COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated this burden, highlighting the need for improved medications,” explained study author (https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=3Ba_uDsAAAAJ&hl=en) Saurabh Pandey, a member of (https://sites.google.com/site/lulaboratorynih/home) Wei Lu’s Synapse and Neural Circuit Research Lab at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.
To explore this, the researchers employed a series of experiments involving mice that were exposed to chronic stress. They used two different models of stress: one involving restraint stress, where mice were physically restrained for several hours a day over two weeks, and another involving maternal separation, where young mice were separated from their mothers for a few hours daily. Both stress models are known to induce anxiety-like behaviors in mice, making them suitable for studying the effects of chronic stress on the brain.
The researchers then analyzed the brains of these stressed mice, particularly focusing on the hippocampus, a region known to be involved in emotion regulation and stress response. They observed that chronic stress did not change the overall levels of many synaptic proteins but significantly reduced the expression of specific inhibitory synaptic proteins. These proteins are crucial for maintaining the balance of excitation and inhibition in the brain, which is essential for normal emotional functioning.
One of the key findings was that chronic stress led to an increase in the activity of Src kinase, an enzyme that modifies other proteins by adding phosphate groups to them. This increased Src activity, in turn, led to the phosphorylation of calmodulin, a protein that interacts with another protein called MyosinVa. MyosinVa is responsible for transporting proteins like Neuroligin2 (NL2) to the synapses, where they help facilitate inhibitory neurotransmission.
Under stress, the interaction between MyosinVa and NL2 was disrupted, leading to reduced levels of NL2 at the synapses and, consequently, decreased inhibitory transmission. This disruption was closely associated with the development of anxiety-like behaviors in the stressed mice.
To further understand the role of this pathway, the researchers genetically manipulated mice to lack a specific part of the NL2 protein that interacts with MyosinVa. These genetically modified mice exhibited anxiety-like behaviors even without being subjected to stress, underscoring the importance of the MyoVa-NL2 interaction in regulating anxiety. Moreover, when these mice were exposed to chronic stress, their anxiety behaviors did not worsen, suggesting that the disruption of this pathway alone was sufficient to cause high anxiety.
“We discovered that two distinct forms of chronic stress activate a shared signaling pathway in the brain in response to both physical and psychological stress,” Pandey told PsyPost.
In a pivotal experiment, the researchers tested whether they could reverse the stress-induced anxiety by pharmacologically inhibiting Src kinase, thereby reducing the phosphorylation of calmodulin and restoring the MyoVa-NL2 interaction. They administered a drug known as PP2, which inhibits Src kinase, to the chronically stressed mice. The treatment successfully restored the levels of inhibitory synaptic proteins, including NL2, and reversed the anxiety-like behaviors in these mice.
However, when the same drug was administered to the genetically modified mice that lacked the MyoVa-NL2 interaction, the drug had no effect. This finding confirmed that the MyoVa-NL2 interaction is crucial for the regulation of anxiety and that the pathway involving Src kinase, calmodulin, MyoVa, and NL2 is a critical mechanism through which chronic stress induces anxiety.
The implications of this study are significant. It identifies a specific molecular pathway that could be targeted for developing new treatments for anxiety and depression. By focusing on this pathway, future therapies could potentially avoid the broad side effects associated with current treatments that affect a wide range of neurotransmitter systems. This research also opens up new directions for exploring how stress affects the brain and contributes to mental health disorders.
“We have identified a novel molecular pathway that is highly responsive to anxiety and depressive disorders, offering a potential new avenue for therapeutic development,” Pandey said. “This study is significant, as it paves the way for a new line of drug development targeting anxiety and depressive disorders.”
However, the study has its limitations. The experiments were conducted in mice, and while mice are often used as models for human biology, there are always differences between species that must be considered. Additionally, the study focused primarily on the hippocampus, but other brain regions are also likely involved.
“We examined a specific brain region, the hippocampus, but we cannot rule out the possibility that other brain regions are involved or that the signaling pathway we discovered functions similarly in these regions,” Pandey explained. “We aim to extend this study through collaboration with researchers involved in pre-clinical or clinical studies.”
The study, “(https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2400078121) Reversing anxiety by targeting a stress-responsive signaling pathway,” was authored by Saurabh Pandey, Wenyan Han, Jun Li, Ryan Shepard, Kunwei Wu, David Castellano, Qingjun Tian, Lijin Dong, Yan Li, and Wei Lu.

(https://www.psypost.org/people-with-a-high-level-of-social-appearance-anxiety-have-higher-nomophobia-levels-study-finds/) People with a high level of social appearance anxiety have higher nomophobia levels, study finds
Aug 13th 2024, 16:00

In a world where smartphones have become essential to daily life, a recent study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2024.03.009) Archives of Psychiatric Nursing highlights a modern-day anxiety — nomophobia, the fear of being without a mobile phone. The study found that young adults who experience higher levels of social appearance anxiety and loneliness are more likely to suffer from nomophobia.
Smartphones offer numerous conveniences, from easy communication and access to information to entertainment and social networking. However, the pervasive use of smartphones has led to the emergence of nomophobia. Researchers wanted to understand the underlying psychosocial factors contributing to this anxiety.
Conducted between June and August 2021, the research involved 687 participants aged 20 to 40 living in Turkey. Participants were selected using convenience sampling, and those with psychiatric conditions were excluded to ensure the study focused on general psychosocial factors.
Data collection was conducted online through a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire included demographic questions and detailed inquiries about smartphone usage. The primary tools used were (https://www.psypost.org/do-you-have-nomophobia-take-this-questionnaire-to-find-out/) the Nomophobia Scale, the Social Appearance Anxiety Scale (SAAS), and the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA-S).
The Nomophobia Scale measures the severity of nomophobia on a scale from 20 to 140. The SAAS assesses anxiety related to one’s appearance, while the SELSA-S evaluates feelings of social and emotional loneliness. The questionnaire was designed to be completed in 10 to 15 minutes, ensuring it was thorough yet accessible.
The study’s findings revealed that young adults had a moderate level of nomophobia, with an average score of 73.76 on the Nomophobia Scale. Social appearance anxiety emerged as a significant predictor of nomophobia. Participants with higher levels of anxiety about their appearance were more likely to experience greater fear and discomfort when separated from their smartphones. This finding suggests that individuals who are self-conscious about their appearance might rely on their phones as a means of social connection and reassurance.
In terms of loneliness, the results were more nuanced. While social loneliness did not show a significant direct relationship with nomophobia, emotional loneliness, particularly in the romantic context, did. Participants who felt isolated in their romantic relationships had higher scores for romantic emotional loneliness. This subgroup appeared to use their smartphones as a way to alleviate their feelings of isolation, which in turn heightened their nomophobia. Interestingly, no significant relationship was found between familial emotional loneliness and nomophobia, indicating that romantic contexts might uniquely influence this modern anxiety.
The study also employed multiple linear regression analysis to predict nomophobia levels. This analysis revealed that social appearance anxiety and social and emotional loneliness collectively explained 8% of the variance in nomophobia levels. While social appearance anxiety positively predicted nomophobia, indicating that as appearance-related anxiety increased, so did nomophobia, social and emotional loneliness had a more complex relationship. Emotional loneliness predicted nomophobia negatively, suggesting that those who are lonely might use their phones to bridge social gaps, thereby increasing their reliance on the device and their fear of being without it.
These findings highlight the interplay between smartphone dependency and psychosocial factors. The study suggests that interventions aimed at reducing social appearance anxiety and addressing emotional loneliness could potentially mitigate nomophobia. For instance, mental health professionals might consider incorporating strategies to boost self-esteem and improve social skills in their treatment plans, helping individuals become less dependent on their smartphones for emotional support and social connection.
The study, “(https://www.psychiatricnursing.org/article/S0883-9417(24)00054-2/abstract) The effect of social appearance anxiety and loneliness on nomophobia levels of young adults,” was authored by Büşra Altınel, Arzu Koçak Uyaroğlu, and Emine Ergin.

(https://www.psypost.org/individuals-with-high-triglyceride-glucose-index-are-more-likely-to-suffer-from-depression/) Individuals with high triglyceride-glucose index are more likely to suffer from depression
Aug 13th 2024, 14:00

A new meta-analysis has reported that individuals with a high triglyceride-glucose index have a 41% greater likelihood of suffering from depression compared to those with lower values of this index. These results remained consistent across individuals both above and below 50 years of age, as well as across different genders. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1390631) Frontiers in Psychiatry.
Depression is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in activities. The severity of depression can vary, and it can be influenced by a variety of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Factors associated with an increased risk of depression include genetic predisposition, chronic stress, trauma, and significant life changes such as loss or illness. Additionally, underlying medical conditions, substance abuse, and social isolation can also contribute to the likelihood of developing depression.
Recent studies have also linked an increased risk of depression to obesity and type 2 diabetes. The key underlying issue with type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance, a condition in which the body’s cells become less responsive to the hormone insulin, leading to impaired glucose uptake and elevated blood sugar levels. Recently, a novel indicator of insulin resistance, the triglyceride-glucose index, was developed. This index is calculated from serum triglyceride and fasting plasma glucose values.
Triglycerides are a type of fat present in the blood, while fasting plasma glucose values indicate the amount of glucose (a simple sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for the body’s cells) in the blood after a period of fasting. Both are important indicators of metabolic health.
Study authors Weitao Wan and Yi Yu sought to evaluate the association between the triglyceride-glucose index and depression in the adult population. They noted that results reported in previous studies were inconsistent, which motivated them to integrate these findings by conducting a meta-analysis.
The authors searched Medline, Web of Science, Embase, Wanfang, and China National Knowledge Internet databases using various terms related to the triglyceride-glucose index and depression. They focused on studies conducted on adults without specific diagnoses or somatic diseases that reported data on both depression and the triglyceride-glucose index.
The search yielded 67 potentially relevant texts. Upon closer inspection, six studies met all the necessary criteria and provided the required data for inclusion in the analysis. These six studies included eight datasets involving a total of 28,973 adults.
The number of participants per study ranged from 387 to 13,350, with 77% of participants coming from just the two largest studies. The proportion of participants with depression varied widely, ranging from 7% to over 50%. The mean age of study participants ranged from 44 to 59 years.
The results showed that individuals with high triglyceride-glucose index values had 41% higher odds of depression compared to those with lower values. The variability of these odds across studies was relatively small. The results were consistent among individuals both above and below 50 years of age and across different genders.
“Although large-scale prospective studies are needed to validate the results, the findings of this meta-analysis support the potential association between a high TyG [triglyceride glucose] index and the prevalence of depression in general population,” the study authors concluded.
The study highlights the potential links between depression and triglyceride-glucose index values. However, it is important to note that the proportion of individuals with depression in several of the studies included in the analysis was much higher than in the general population. While common estimates suggest that the lifetime prevalence of depression in the population is between 5% and 17%, three of the studies in this meta-analysis reported depression rates near or above 50%, while one study did not report this information.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1390631) Association between the triglyceride glucose index and depression: a meta-analysis,” was authored by Weitao Wan and Yi Yu.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-research-reveals-how-a-negative-emotion-can-help-you-succeed/) New psychology research reveals how a negative emotion can help you succeed
Aug 13th 2024, 12:00

Can negative emotions help us achieve goals? A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000350) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology suggests yes.
Functional accounts of emotions suggest different emotions allow us to solve different kinds of problems, much like a Swiss army knife equipped with various tools for a range of situations. These theories propose that emotions are adaptive responses to environmental challenges we encounter, triggered to resolve the discrepancies between current and desired states.
Anger is theorized to arise when goals are obstructed and promote behaviors that help overcome these obstacles. In this work, Heather C. Lench and colleagues examined whether anger improves goal attainment in challenging situations.
Study 1 examined whether anger could enhance performance in solving difficult anagrams. A total of 233 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of five emotional conditions: anger, neutral, amusement, desire, and sadness. To elicit these emotions, participants viewed a series of fifteen images from the International Affective Picture System and other sources, each displayed for five seconds; they were told that the task was for a memory exercise, ensuring their focus on the images. Following the emotional induction, participants were tasked with solving four sets of seven anagrams within 20 minutes. The primary focus was on the first set, which was designed to be particularly challenging. Time spent on each anagram and overall persistence on the task were also recorded.
The results showed that participants in the anger condition solved significantly more anagrams than those in the neutral condition. Additionally, participants in the anger condition spent more time working on the anagrams compared to those in other emotional conditions.
Study 2 explored whether anger would increase cheating behavior in a task where participants could win prizes. The sample consisted of 242 undergraduate students, randomly assigned to one of five emotional conditions as in Study 1. Next, participants were given five minutes to complete a challenging reasoning and logic task, which involved finding two three-digit numbers that summed to ten within a series of 19 puzzles. Participants were informed that they could win university memorabilia based on their performance. After completing the task, they were left alone to self-report their performance, with an opportunity to misreport their results to win more prizes. The primary measure was the rate of cheating, computed by comparing reported performance to actual performance.
The results revealed that participants in the anger condition were more likely to cheat compared to those in the neutral condition, with higher rates of misreporting their performance to win prizes. Anger also led to more cheating behavior than the desire and sadness conditions but was not significantly different from the amusement condition.
Study 3 investigated the impact of anger on performance in a video game involving both challenging and easy tasks. The study included 288 undergraduate students, randomly assigned to one of five emotional conditions as before. After practicing the video games, participants underwent an emotional induction like the previous studies. They then played a skiing video game, which included a challenging slalom course, and a simple ski jump task. Participants played each game three times, and their scores were averaged for analysis. The primary focus was on performance in the slalom course, which required greater physical and cognitive effort.
Participants in the anger condition performed better on the challenging slalom course compared to those in the neutral and sadness conditions, achieving lower completion times. The beneficial effect of anger was more pronounced in the challenging task, while there were no significant differences in performance on the simpler ski jump task across emotional conditions.
Study 4 examined the effect of anger on reaction time performance in a challenging task. The sample consisted of 100 undergraduate students who were randomly assigned to different emotional conditions like previous studies. They next completed a modified anger incentive delay task, which involved responding to a target stimulus to win or lose money based on their reaction time. The task included a practice block followed by three experimental blocks: a success block with a long response window, a success with incentive block with the same long window but with a bonus for good performance, and an anger block with a very short response window designed to induce frustration and anger. Emotional responses were measured before and after each block using the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire.
The results showed that participants in the anger block had faster reaction times and performed better compared to those in other blocks. They were also more likely to want to redo the challenging block, indicating a higher level of engagement and persistence. The anger block effectively elicited higher levels of anger, which was associated with improved performance on the task.
Study 5 investigated the relationship between anger and voting behavior in the 2016 and 2020 U.S. Presidential elections. The sample included 989 participants for the 2016 election and 416 participants for the 2020 election, recruited as part of a larger study. Participants were asked to report their anticipated anger if their non-preferred candidate won the election, and their actual voting behavior after the election. Two to three weeks before the election, participants were given a scenario to imagine how they would feel if the opposing candidate won and rated their anticipated anger and fear on a scale from 1 to 9. After the election, participants reported whether they voted and for whom. The primary measure was the relationship between anticipated anger and actual voting behavior.
The findings demonstrated that anger significantly predicted voting behavior in both the 2016 and 2020 elections. Participants who anticipated higher levels of anger if their non-preferred candidate won were more likely to vote. This relationship held true even after controlling for predicted fear, indicating that anger, rather than fear, was a stronger motivator for voting behavior. The results were consistent across supporters of both major candidates in each election.
Study 6 examined whether anger could enhance proactive behavior to protect financial resources. The sample consisted of 125 undergraduate students who were randomly assigned to different emotional conditions: anger, neutral, and physiological arousal. The emotional induction procedure was similar to previous studies. Next, participants were given a scenario where they had to decide on actions to protect their financial resources from potential loss. The primary measure was the number of proactive actions taken to prevent financial loss.
The results indicated that participants in the anger condition took more proactive actions to protect their financial resources compared to those in the neutral and physiological arousal conditions.
Across six studies, this research provides robust evidence that anger, often viewed as a detrimental emotion, can play a beneficial role in goal attainment in challenging situations.
One limitation is the artificial nature of laboratory tasks, which may not fully capture the complexity of real-world goal attainment.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000350) Anger Has Benefits for Attaining Goals”, was authored by Heather C. Lench, Noah T. Reed, Tiffany George, Kaitlyn A. Kaiser, and Sophia G. North.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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