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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/psychology-study-reveals-how-gratitude-can-backfire-on-your-social-standing/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Psychology study reveals how gratitude can backfire on your social standing</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 31st 2026, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>Public expressions of gratitude are generally viewed as positive social glue that strengthens relationships and signals warmth. However, new research suggests that offering effusive thanks may come with a hidden cost to one’s perceived social standing. </p>
<p>A series of studies indicates that when individuals express intense gratitude, observers often view them as having lower status and power relative to the person they are thanking. This research was published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506251320427" target="_blank">Social Psychological and Personality Science</a></em>.</p>
<p>Social scientists have historically emphasized the benefits of gratitude. It creates social bonds and signals that a person is friendly and responsive. Many organizations even institutionalize this practice through “gratitude walls” or dedicated communication channels to foster a positive culture. The authors of the current study wanted to investigate a potential downside regarding how competence and influence are perceived.</p>
<p>They noted that while gratitude signals warmth, it might also signal a lack of agency. Agency refers to traits like competence, assertiveness, and control. In social hierarchies, individuals with higher rank typically possess more agency and control over resources. </p>
<p>Because high-ranking individuals are often the ones dispensing favors and resources, they are frequently on the receiving end of gratitude. The researchers hypothesized that observers might intuitively associate intense displays of gratitude with a lower position in the social hierarchy.</p>
<p>“The overwhelming majority of research on gratitude highlights its positive effects. But—inspired in part by work showing that hierarchical relationships can become further entrenched when higher power groups help lower power groups—we had an intuition that sometimes when you express thanks, you might be subordinating yourself to another person,” said study author Kristin Laurin, a professor of psychology at the University of British Columbia.</p>
<p>To test this hypothesis, the researchers conducted two initial studies involving approximately 800 participants recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk. The team designed vignettes describing a workplace scenario. </p>
<p>In these scenarios, one colleague performed a favor for another, such as facilitating a meeting with a manager. The researchers included photographs to vary the gender and race of the characters to ensure the results were not driven by demographics.</p>
<p>Participants first rated the status of both characters based solely on the knowledge that a favor occurred. Following this, they viewed the thanker’s response. The researchers manipulated this response to be either mild or intense. A mild response was a simple phrase like “Great, thanks.” An intense response included phrases like “I’m incredibly grateful” and “I really owe you.”</p>
<p>The researchers found that the intensity of the gratitude significantly shaped perceptions of status. When the thanker was highly effusive, observers upgraded their perception of the helper’s status. The person receiving the thanks was seen as having more respect and influence than the person giving the thanks. This effect occurred even though the favor itself was identical in all conditions.</p>
<p>The researchers sought to replicate these findings across a broader range of contexts in two subsequent studies. These studies recruited roughly 740 participants from Prolific. The scenarios extended beyond the workplace to include academic settings, social media interactions, and casual encounters like a café visit. For instance, one scenario involved a student getting help with study notes.</p>
<p>A potential issue in the first studies was that mild gratitude might look like rudeness, which is a violation of social norms. To address this, the researchers asked participants to categorize various expressions of thanks as “appropriate,” “not enough,” or “too much.” Participants then viewed a gratitude expression that fell within the “appropriate” range but was either on the high or low end of intensity.</p>
<p>Participants rated both the status and power of the characters. Status was defined as respect and admiration. Power was defined as control over resources. The results reinforced the earlier findings. When thankers expressed mild gratitude, observers tended to view the helper as having less relative rank. When thankers expressed intense gratitude, the helper maintained a higher perceived rank.</p>
<p>The researchers also attempted to understand why this shift in perception occurs. They measured whether observers thought the thanker valued the help more or wanted to build a stronger relationship. </p>
<p>While intense gratitude did signal a desire for affiliation, these factors did not explain the shift in perceived status. The link between gratitude and low rank appeared to be a direct inference made by the observers.</p>
<p>The final set of studies moved away from hypothetical scenarios to real-world data. The researchers collected actual work-related messages exchanged by working adults. They presented these messages to over 650 participants across three separate studies. The participants viewed screenshots of emails and instant messages containing expressions of thanks.</p>
<p>Trained coders analyzed the messages for different types of intensity. They looked for “relative intensity,” which meant the message was primarily dedicated to expressing thanks rather than discussing other business. They also coded for “verbal amplification,” such as using extra adjectives, and “nonverbal amplification,” such as using exclamation points or emojis.</p>
<p>The participants rated the sender’s status, power, warmth, and competence. The findings revealed a nuanced pattern. When a message was primarily focused on gratitude, the sender was perceived as having lower status and power compared to the recipient. These senders were also viewed as less competent and assertive.</p>
<p>The use of nonverbal cues like emojis also tended to lower perceptions of rank. However, simply adding more words to say thanks did not consistently lower perceived status. </p>
<p>In some cases, verbose thankers were actually seen as having higher agency. The researchers speculated that managers might often use longer, praise-filled messages to encourage employees, which complicates the interpretation of verbal length.</p>
<p>“When we tested our predictions in a particular real-world context—emails sent in the workplace—we were surprised that using emojis and punctuation (like exclamation marks), or using extra words to express more effusive gratitude, actually did not result in thankers appearing lower status,” Laurin told PsyPost. “Instead, what made them appear lower status was sending an email that was solely or primarily about gratitude (as opposed to expressing thanks while also delivering other content).”</p>
<p>“This study was correlational, so we can’t rule out confounds: Maybe the more effusive thankers tended to be in management positions, or maybe lower status employees instinctively avoid emojis because they worry about how they’ll come across. But for now the key takeaway from these real-world studies appears to be that if you want to express gratitude without losing status, it might be safest to do so when you also have something else to say.”</p>
<p>The results suggest that while gratitude makes a person seem nicer, it can inadvertently signal lower professional standing. People often face a trade-off between appearing warm and appearing powerful. </p>
<p>That publicly expressing thanks can make observers think you have lower status than the person you are thanking. Many times that may be a price people are willing to pay, especially given gratitude’s other benefits, but it is a cost to bear in mind. The researchers note that this does not mean people should stop saying thank you.</p>
<p>“The effects are not huge, so the takeaway message is definitely not that you should never express gratitude if you care about your status!” Laurin clarified. “It may simply be worth asking yourself if you have a compulsion to overdo the gratitude, for example expressing it multiple times for the same favor. If so, it may be worth being aware that this may lead others to make assumptions about your status and power.”</p>
<p>As with all research, there are some caveats. The samples were entirely American. Cultural norms regarding hierarchy and gratitude vary significantly around the world. In some cultures, effusive gratitude might not carry the same connotations of submission.</p>
<p>The researchers are interested in how these dynamics play out in intergroup contexts. It remains to be seen how gratitude affects power dynamics between members of minority and majority groups.</p>
<p>“One of our inspirations for this project came from thinking about intergroup dynamics and pre-existing status relations: We wondered if gratitude hits differently when its expressed by a member of a minorities group to a member of a dominant group, compared to the reverse,” Laurin said. “Our initial forays into exploring this have not turned up reliable differences, but the broader question remains unresolved.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506251320427" target="_blank">Does Saying “Thanks a Lot” Make You Look Less Than? The Magnitude of Gratitude Shapes Perceptions of Relational Hierarchy</a>,” was authored by Kristin Laurin, Kate W. Guan, and Ayana Younge.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/surprising-link-found-between-hyperthyroidism-and-dark-personality-traits/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Surprising link found between hyperthyroidism and dark personality traits</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 31st 2026, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>New research published in <em>Current Psychology</em> provides evidence linking an overactive thyroid gland to specific personality characteristics known as the “Dark Tetrad.” The study indicates that individuals with hyperthyroidism report higher levels of Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism compared to those with normal thyroid function. These findings suggest that physiological imbalances in the endocrine system may influence socially aversive personality traits.</p>
<p>The thyroid gland plays a central regulatory role within the human body. It releases hormones that control metabolism, energy levels, and heart rate. Beyond these physical functions, the thyroid significantly impacts the brain and nervous system.</p>
<p>Medical professionals have recognized that thyroid dysfunction often accompanies changes in mood and behavior. An overactive thyroid, or hyperthyroidism, frequently presents with symptoms such as restlessness, irritability, and anxiety. In contrast, an underactive thyroid, or hypothyroidism, is often associated with fatigue, mental fog, and emotional flatness.</p>
<p>The authors of the new study noted that the behavioral symptoms of hyperthyroidism overlap with descriptions of antagonistic personality traits. For instance, reduced empathy and impulsive aggression are common in both hyperthyroid patients and individuals with high psychopathy scores. Despite these parallels, there has been little scientific investigation into whether thyroid dysfunction correlates with the Dark Tetrad traits.</p>
<p>The Dark Tetrad refers to a constellation of four socially offensive personality traits. These include Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism. While distinct, they share a common core involving emotional coldness and a tendency to prioritize one’s own interests at the expense of others.</p>
<p>“This study was initially motivated by one author’s long-standing diagnosis of Graves’ disease and chronic hyperthyroidism, which provided ongoing exposure to the psychological and interpersonal dimensions of thyroid dysfunction,” explained study authors Or Maimon and Tal Ben Yaacov of Ashkelon Academic College.</p>
<p>“This perspective highlighted a gap in the literature, which has focused primarily on affective symptoms while largely overlooking maladaptive personality traits in the context of thyroid disorders. We sought to address this gap by examining whether chronic thyroid hormonal imbalance is associated with dark personality traits, thereby broadening the psychological framework used to understand thyroid-related conditions.”</p>
<p>To explore this potential connection, the researchers designed a study to compare personality profiles across different thyroid conditions. They aimed to determine if the physiological state of the thyroid could predict variations in these specific personality traits.</p>
<p>The researchers recruited 154 adult participants through online communities. The recruitment process targeted specific health-related support groups to find individuals with diagnosed thyroid issues. The final sample consisted of 140 women and 14 men, with an age range of 18 to 64 years.</p>
<p>Participants were categorized into three distinct groups based on their self-reported medical status. The first group included 49 individuals with hyperthyroidism. The second group consisted of 52 individuals with hypothyroidism. The third group served as a comparison and included 53 individuals who reported no history of thyroid disorders.</p>
<p>Participants with thyroid conditions indicated that they had recently undergone blood tests to verify their diagnosis. This requirement helped ensure that the study captured individuals with active or monitored conditions. The researchers then administered the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4) questionnaire to all participants.</p>
<p>The SD4 is a 28-item assessment tool designed to measure the four dark traits. Participants rated their agreement with statements such as “It is not wise to let people know your secrets” or “Some people deserve to suffer.” Responses were recorded on a five-point scale.</p>
<p>Machiavellianism was measured by items assessing strategic manipulation and cynicism. Narcissism was evaluated through statements reflecting a sense of entitlement and superiority. Psychopathy was assessed via items focusing on impulsivity and callousness. Sadism was measured by the enjoyment of hurting or dominating others.</p>
<p>The results revealed differences in personality scores between the groups. Individuals in the hyperthyroidism group reported higher scores on all four dark traits compared to those in the hypothyroidism group. This finding points to a distinct divergence in personality profiles based on the type of thyroid dysfunction.</p>
<p>When compared to the healthy control group, the hyperthyroidism group continued to show elevated scores. They reported higher levels of Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. Narcissism scores were higher than the hypothyroidism group but did not statistically differ from the comparison group.</p>
<p>“One notable finding was that associations were observed across multiple dark personality traits rather than being limited to a single dimension,” the researchers told PsyPost. “Drawing on personal experience of coping with chronic hormonal dysregulation, some degree of association was anticipated; however, the breadth of this pattern was unexpected, pointing to a broader involvement of interpersonal and self-related tendencies rather than a trait-specific effect.”</p>
<p>The researchers found no significant differences between the hypothyroidism group and the healthy comparison group. Individuals with underactive thyroids produced personality scores that were statistically similar to those with normal thyroid function. This suggests that the elevation in dark traits is specific to the hyperthyroid state.</p>
<p>The study also examined the relationships between the traits within each group. In the hyperthyroidism group, the four traits were strongly correlated with one another. This indicates a more cohesive or integrated “dark” personality profile among these individuals.</p>
<p>The researchers accounted for demographic variables such as age and sex. Previous research has shown that men generally score higher on dark traits, and these traits tend to decrease with age. The current study confirmed these patterns.</p>
<p>However, even after controlling for age and sex, thyroid status remained a significant predictor of the personality outcomes. This reinforces the idea that the hormonal condition itself contributes uniquely to the expression of these traits.</p>
<p>The authors propose that the physiological mechanisms of hyperthyroidism may drive these psychological outcomes. Elevated thyroid hormones increase metabolic rate and heighten activity in the central nervous system. This state of physiological hyperarousal can lead to emotional instability and reduced impulse control.</p>
<p>Such symptoms align closely with the behavioral manifestations of psychopathy and sadism. The chronic irritability and anxiety associated with hyperthyroidism may exacerbate interpersonal antagonism. Over time, these physiological drivers could shape stable patterns of behavior that are measured as personality traits.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the physiological slowing associated with hypothyroidism might inhibit these traits. The fatigue and emotional blunting common in hypothyroidism do not align with the active hostility or manipulation required for dark traits. This may explain why the hypothyroidism group scored lower than the hyperthyroidism group.</p>
<p>These findings have implications for how clinicians and the public understand behavioral changes in medical patients. The results suggest that hormonal imbalances can affect how individuals think, feel, and interact with others. Recognizing this biological influence may foster greater compassion and understanding in interpersonal relationships.</p>
<p>“The main takeaway is to raise awareness that thyroid hormonal imbalance may affect not only emotional well-being, but also the way people think and process information, as well as how individuals think, feel, and interact with others,” the researchers found. “These patterns are often subtle and may go unrecognized, but they can shape everyday relationships and self-perception. Greater awareness may help individuals and clinicians interpret such changes with more understanding and compassion.”</p>
<p>It is important to note that these effects were observed at the group level. A diagnosis of hyperthyroidism does not imply that a specific individual has a dark personality. </p>
<p>“The effects observed were modest, but statistically significant,” the researchers noted. “Such effects can be practically meaningful when they point to consistent patterns that may accumulate over time or influence everyday functioning. The findings should be interpreted as informative rather than diagnostic.”</p>
<p>“Importantly, the findings should not be interpreted as implying that individuals with thyroid disorders possess problematic or ‘dark’ personalities. The results reflect associations at the group level, not individual character judgments..”</p>
<p>As with all research, there are also limitations to keep in mind. The design was cross-sectional, which means it cannot prove that thyroid dysfunction causes personality changes. It is possible that shared underlying biological factors contribute to both the thyroid condition and the personality traits.</p>
<p>The reliance on self-reported diagnoses is another limitation. Although participants were recruited from patient support groups, the researchers did not verify hormone levels through independent laboratory testing. This introduces a potential for misclassification or inaccuracy regarding the severity of the condition.</p>
<p>The recruitment method may have introduced self-selection bias. Individuals who choose to participate in online studies about health and personality may differ from the general patient population. They might be more health-conscious or more introspective about their psychological state.</p>
<p>Future research aims to address these limitations by using larger, more diverse samples. The authors plan to incorporate objective medical data to confirm diagnoses and hormone levels. Longitudinal studies could also help track how personality traits change over time as thyroid function fluctuates or responds to treatment.</p>
<p>“We are currently extending this work through additional studies that examine thyroid dysfunction in relation to mental health outcomes and personality characteristics,” the researchers said. “To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first to directly compare individuals with hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and healthy comparison groups, highlighting the importance of examining thyroid-related conditions within a comparative framework rather than focusing on a single clinical group.” </p>
<p>“Developing this concept further, these projects are designed to broaden understanding of how different thyroid-related conditions intersect with psychological functioning in everyday life. Through this ongoing work, we aim to contribute knowledge that can inform research, clinical awareness, and public understanding of this population.”</p>
<p>The study, “Dark personality traits and thyroid dysfunction: a study based on self-reported thyroid hormonal imbalance,” was authored by Or Maimon and Tal Ben Yaacov.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-research-links-psychopathy-to-a-proclivity-for-upskirting/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New research links psychopathy to a proclivity for upskirting</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 30th 2026, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>The unauthorized taking of intimate images, a practice often referred to as “upskirting,” has emerged as a distinct form of sexual abuse in the digital age. New research indicates that the likelihood of someone committing this offense, as well as how society judges the victims, is heavily influenced by demographic factors such as age and gender. </p>
<p>The study found that older individuals and men are generally more inclined to blame the victim and less likely to perceive the act as a serious criminal offense. These findings on the psychology behind image-based sexual abuse were published in the journal <em>Sexual Abuse</em>.</p>
<p>As smartphones with high-quality cameras have become ubiquitous, the barriers to committing digital sex crimes have lowered. One such offense is upskirting, which involves positioning a camera underneath a person’s clothing to photograph or film their genitals or buttocks without their consent. </p>
<p>This behavior is often done to obtain sexual gratification or to cause humiliation. While England and Wales formally criminalized this specific act under the Voyeurism (Offences) Act in 2019, legal frameworks around the world remain inconsistent. Some jurisdictions treat it as a breach of privacy rather than a sexual crime, while others lack specific legislation altogether.</p>
<p>To better address this issue, it is necessary to understand the psychological motivations of the perpetrators and the societal attitudes that might minimize the harm caused to victims. Dean Fido, a psychologist at the University of Derby, led a research team to investigate these factors. </p>
<p>Fido and his colleagues, Craig A. Harper, Simon Duff, and Thomas E. Page, aimed to identify which personality traits predict a willingness to commit upskirting. They also sought to determine if the physical characteristics of the victim affect how the public judges the severity of the crime.</p>
<p>The researchers recruited 490 participants from the United Kingdom to complete an online study. To assess social judgments, the team presented participants with a written vignette describing a fictional scenario at a spa. </p>
<p>In the story, a character named Taylor is relaxing on a poolside lounger. Taylor notices another character, named Ashley, lying on a lounger opposite. Taylor observes that Ashley’s robe has parted, revealing their genitals. Without Ashley noticing, Taylor uses a mobile phone to take a photograph of Ashley’s private area before leaving the premises.</p>
<p>The researchers manipulated the details of this story to create four different versions. In some versions, the victim, Ashley, was described as a woman, while in others, Ashley was a man. </p>
<p>Additionally, the researchers included a photograph of “Ashley” to manipulate perceived attractiveness. These photos depicted either an attractive or unattractive individual, based on ratings from previous psychological datasets. After reading the assigned scenario, participants answered questions about how much blame Ashley deserved, whether police intervention was necessary, and how much harm the incident caused.</p>
<p>The results revealed a distinct double standard regarding the gender of the victim. When the victim in the scenario was a woman, participants assigned significantly less blame compared to when the victim was a man. </p>
<p>Participants were also more likely to believe that the police should be involved and that the victim would suffer harm if the target was female. This aligns with broader patterns in society where sexual violence is often viewed primarily as a crime against women. The victimization of men in this context was viewed with less severity.</p>
<p>Physical appearance also influenced these judgments, particularly for male victims. The study found that when the male victim was depicted as attractive, participants perceived the lowest levels of victim harm. This suggests a specific bias where attractive men are less likely to be viewed as vulnerable or traumatized by non-consensual sexual attention. </p>
<p>For female victims, attractiveness did not play a statistically significant role in how much blame was assigned, contradicting some historical research suggesting attractive women are often blamed more for sexual victimization.</p>
<p>One of the strongest predictors of social attitudes was the age of the participant. The data showed that older participants consistently held more negative views toward the victim than younger participants did. Regardless of the victim’s gender or attractiveness, older respondents assigned more blame to the person who was photographed. They also perceived the act as less criminal and believed it caused less harm than their younger counterparts.</p>
<p>The researchers suggest this generational divide may stem from differences in technological familiarity. Younger generations, who have grown up with the internet and smartphones, may be more acutely aware of the permanence and reach of digital images. They may perceive the violation of digital privacy as a more profound threat. Conversely, older individuals might view the scenario through a different lens, potentially minimizing the severity of an act that does not involve physical contact.</p>
<p>Beyond judging the scenario, participants were asked about their own potential behavior. The survey included a question measuring proclivity, or willingness, to commit the crime. Participants were asked how likely they would be to take intimate pictures of an attractive person if they were guaranteed not to get caught. To understand who might answer “yes” to this question, the researchers administered standard psychological questionnaires measuring the “Dark Tetrad” of personality traits.</p>
<p>The Dark Tetrad consists of four distinct but related personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. Narcissism involves a sense of entitlement and grandiosity. Machiavellianism is characterized by manipulation and a focus on self-interest. Psychopathy involves a lack of empathy and high impulsivity. Sadism is the enjoyment of inflicting cruelty or suffering on others.</p>
<p>The study found that a willingness to engage in upskirting was not randomly distributed. Men were more likely to express a proclivity for the behavior than women. </p>
<p>Additionally, participants who admitted to past voyeuristic behaviors—such as secretly watching people undress—were more likely to say they would commit upskirting. Among the personality traits, higher levels of psychopathy emerged as a primary predictor. Individuals scoring high in psychopathy were more likely to endorse taking the non-consensual photos.</p>
<p>This connection to psychopathy makes theoretical sense. Upskirting requires a person to violate social norms and the rights of another person for immediate gratification, often without concern for the distress it causes the victim. </p>
<p>This aligns with the callousness and lack of empathy central to psychopathy. The researchers also noted that older age predicted a higher self-reported likelihood of committing the act, which mirrors the finding that older participants viewed the act as less criminal.</p>
<p>The study also measured “belief in a just world,” which is the psychological tendency to believe that people get what they deserve. In many studies on sexual violence, a strong belief in a just world correlates with victim blaming. </p>
<p>In this study, however, those with a stronger belief in a just world were less likely to express a willingness to commit upskirting. This suggests that for this specific crime, a belief in moral fairness might act as a deterrent against perpetration, even if it does not always prevent victim blaming.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this research that context is needed. The sample was drawn exclusively from the United Kingdom, meaning the results reflect British cultural and legal norms. Attitudes might differ in countries with different laws regarding privacy and sexual offenses. Additionally, the study relied on a single specific scenario in a spa. Upskirting frequently occurs in public spaces like public transit or escalators, and public perceptions might shift depending on the setting.</p>
<p>The measurement of proclivity relied on self-reports. Participants had to admit they might commit a crime, which can lead to underreporting due to social desirability bias. However, the anonymity of the online survey format was designed to encourage honest responses. The researchers also point out that while they found statistical links, they cannot definitively say one factor causes another, only that they are related.</p>
<p>Despite these caveats, the findings have implications for the legal and justice systems. The observation that older individuals are more likely to minimize the harm of upskirting and blame the victim is relevant for jury selection and judicial training. If older jurors or judges hold implicit biases that view this form of abuse as trivial, it could affect the outcomes of trials and the sentences handed down to offenders.</p>
<p>For mental health practitioners, the strong link between voyeurism and upskirting provides a pathway for intervention. Therapists working with individuals who have committed these offenses might focus on addressing underlying voyeuristic compulsions and deficits in empathy associated with psychopathic traits. Treating upskirting not just as a privacy violation but as a manifestation of voyeuristic disorder could lead to more effective rehabilitation strategies.</p>
<p>The study, “Understanding Social Judgments of and Proclivities to Commit Upskirting,” was authored by Dean Fido, Craig A. Harper, Simon Duff, and Thomas E. Page.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/alcohol-triggers-unique-activity-in-amygdala-neurons/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Alcohol triggers unique activity in amygdala neurons</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 30th 2026, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>A study on mice identified a group of neurons in the central amygdala region of the brain that display a unique pattern of increased activity during voluntary alcohol consumption. While these neurons also responded to other fluids, their activity was significantly higher when mice drank alcohol compared to when they drank sucrose or water. This unique response did not diminish over time. The paper was published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111445"><em>in Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry</em></a>.</p>
<p>Alcohol use disorder is a chronic condition characterized by a problematic pattern of alcohol consumption that leads to significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. Despite treatment, relapses are frequent. Estimates suggest that around 30 million people in the U.S. alone are affected by it, which is around 9% of the population.</p>
<p>People with alcohol use disorder tend to have difficulty controlling how much they drink or how often they drink. They tend to continue drinking despite negative consequences. Common symptoms of this disorder include tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and spending a great deal of time obtaining, using, or recovering from alcohol.</p>
<p>Excessive alcohol drinking, characteristic of alcohol use disorder, increases the risk of liver disease, cardiovascular problems, and certain cancers. It also has substantial psychological and social consequences, including depression, anxiety, family conflict, and work-related difficulties.</p>
<p>Study author Christina L. Lebonville and her colleagues note that studies of rodents have revealed that the central amygdala is a key region of the brain for alcohol drinking behaviors, particularly in alcohol dependence. This region contains three groups of neurons (sub-nuclei) that differ in the type of neuropeptide they express.</p>
<p>Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that neurons use to communicate with each other and to regulate various functions of the body. Unlike neurotransmitters, neuropeptides are released more slowly and they act over a longer time span.</p>
<p>One of these groups of neurons produces dynorphin, a neuropeptide involved in stress, pain, and negative emotional states. They are called dynorphin-expressing neurons or CeADyn neurons.</p>
<p>Previous studies implicated their activity in excessive alcohol drinking both during acute and chronic alcohol exposure. They also showed that CeADyn neurons regulate both binge alcohol drinking and drinking enhanced by stress in individuals with alcohol dependence. The disruption of their activity reduced alcohol drinking.</p>
<p>This study was conducted on 35 prodynorphin-Cre mice. These are genetically engineered mice with genetic properties that allow researchers to selectively label, monitor, and manipulate their CeADyn neurons. Mice were 8–17 weeks of age at the start of the experiment. They had free access to food throughout the experiment and free access to water outside experimental drinking sessions.</p>
<p>The study authors performed a surgery on these mice during which they injected a virus into their central amygdala. This virus changed their DNA so that a fluorescent calcium sensor was expressed in their CeADyn neurons, allowing the authors to measure their activity. At the same time, they implanted a small optical fiber above this region allowing them to record neural activity through light signals (fiber photometry).</p>
<p>After recovery from surgery, mice were given access to different solutions for 2 hours per day, 5–6 days per week. In the first experiment, mice had access to 20% alcohol for 3 weeks, water for two weeks, and 0.5% sucrose for three weeks.</p>
<p>In the second experiment, mice first had access to solutions with different quinine concentrations, followed by water, water after 24 hours of water deprivation, a combination of 0.5% sucrose and low quinine concentrations, and 0.5% sucrose with high quinine concentrations. The study authors recorded the brain activity of the mice during these periods.</p>
<p>Results showed strong increases in CeADyn neuron activity after bouts of alcohol drinking compared to sucrose or water drinking. Behaviors specific for drinking alcohol, such as longer bout durations, did not fully explain the differences in the pattern of activity of these neurons when mice were drinking alcohol compared to when they were drinking something else.</p>
<p>“No other conditions or solutions tested reproduced the pronounced change in CeADyn activity associated with alcohol drinking. These findings support the presence of a unique functional signature for alcohol in a cell population known to control excessive alcohol drinking and further advance fiber photometric normalization and analytical methods,” the study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the neural underpinnings of alcohol drinking behaviors. However, it should be noted that this study was done on mice, not on humans. While humans and mice share many physiological characteristics, they are still very different species. Findings on humans may differ.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111445">Alcohol drinking is associated with greater calcium activity in mouse central amygdala dynorphin-expressing neurons,</a>” was authored by Christina L. Lebonville, Jennifer A. Rinker, Krysten O’Hara, Christopher S. McMahan, Michaela Hoffman, Howard C. Becker, and Patrick J. Mulholland.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/cannabidiol-prevents-alzheimers-like-cognitive-decline-in-new-rat-study/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Cannabidiol prevents Alzheimer’s-like cognitive decline in new rat study</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 30th 2026, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A compound found in cannabis may help protect the brain from early memory and social problems linked to Alzheimer’s disease. A new animal study published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-025-02213-0" target="_blank">Neuropsychopharmacology</a></em> found that cannabidiol prevented cognitive decline in rats by reducing brain inflammation and activating key brain receptors.</p>
<p>Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive brain disorder best known for causing memory loss, but it also affects thinking, decision-making, and social engagement. Scientists increasingly recognize that inflammation in the brain plays a major role in driving these symptoms, especially in the early stages of the disease.</p>
<p>Cannabidiol is a chemical compound extracted from the cannabis plant that does not cause a “high.” In recent years, it has gained attention for its potential anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. While cannabidiol is already used in some medical treatments, its possible role in preventing or slowing Alzheimer’s disease remains under investigation.</p>
<p>Roni Shira Toledano and Irit Akirav from the University of Haifa, Israel, wanted to explore whether cannabidiol could stop Alzheimer-like symptoms from developing in the first place, rather than trying to reverse damage after it occurs. They were particularly interested in the role of type 1 cannabinoid receptors, which are found throughout the brain and are involved in memory, learning, and inflammation control.</p>
<p>To test this, the scientists conducted experiments using male rats. The rats were injected with a substance known as streptozotocin, which triggers brain changes similar to those seen in Alzheimer’s disease, including amyloid β-protein accumulation and tau phosphorylation. Some of the rats then received regular doses of cannabidiol, while others did not.</p>
<p>The researchers monitored the animals’ behavior using standard tests of memory, learning, and social interaction. They also examined brain tissue to measure levels of inflammation and to determine whether type 1 cannabinoid receptors were involved in cannabidiol’s effects.</p>
<p>The results revealed that the rats that did not receive cannabidiol showed clear memory problems and reduced interest in social interaction—behaviors commonly seen in Alzheimer’s disease. In contrast, rats treated with cannabidiol performed normally on memory tasks and continued to interact socially with other rats.</p>
<p>Brain analysis revealed that cannabidiol-treated rats had lower levels of inflammation compared to untreated rats. When researchers blocked type 1 cannabinoid receptors using a different substance, many of cannabidiol’s protective effects disappeared, suggesting that these receptors play an important role in how cannabidiol protects the brain.</p>
<p>The findings suggest that cannabidiol may help prevent cognitive and social decline by calming inflammation in the brain and supporting normal brain signaling. The researchers emphasize that cannabidiol did not simply mask symptoms, but appeared to prevent damage from developing in the first place.</p>
<p>“As current Alzheimer’s disease treatments are limited, our study highlights cannabidiol as a promising candidate, demonstrating for the first time that a low dose can prevent behavioral and molecular deficits in a rodent model of [the disease],” the authors concluded.</p>
<p>However, the study has important limitations. It was conducted only in male rats, and animal models do not perfectly replicate human Alzheimer’s disease. Additionally, the study focused on early-stage changes rather than long-term disease progression.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-025-02213-0" target="_blank">Cannabidiol prevents cognitive and social deficits in a male rat model of Alzheimer’s disease through CB1 activation and inflammation modulation</a>,” was authored by Roni Shira Toledano and Irit Akirav.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/genetic-risk-for-depression-maps-to-specific-structural-brain-changes/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Genetic risk for depression maps to specific structural brain changes</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 30th 2026, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new comprehensive analysis has revealed that major depressive disorder alters both the physical architecture and the electrical activity of the brain in the same specific regions. By mapping these overlapping changes, researchers identified a distinct set of genes that likely drives these abnormalities during early brain development. The detailed results of this investigation were published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120700" target="_blank">Journal of Affective Disorders</a></em>.</p>
<p>Major depressive disorder is a pervasive mental health condition that affects millions of people globally. It is characterized by persistent low mood and a loss of interest in daily activities. Patients often experience difficulties with cognitive function and emotional regulation.</p>
<p> While the symptoms are psychological, the condition is rooted in biological changes within the brain. Researchers have sought to understand the physical mechanisms behind the disorder for decades. The goal is to move beyond symptom management toward treatments that address the root biological causes.</p>
<p>Most previous research has looked at brain changes in isolation. Some studies use structural magnetic resonance imaging to measure the volume of gray matter. This tissue contains the cell bodies of neurons. A reduction in gray matter volume typically suggests a loss of neurons or a shrinkage of connections between them. </p>
<p>Other studies use functional magnetic resonance imaging. This technique measures blood flow to track brain activity. It looks at how well different brain regions synchronize their firing patterns or the intensity of their activity while the person is resting.</p>
<p>Results from these single-method studies have often been inconsistent. One study might find a problem in the frontal lobe, while another points to the temporal lobe. It has been difficult to know if structural damage causes functional problems or if they occur independently. Additionally, scientists know that genetics play a large role in depression risk. However, it remains unclear how specific genetic variations translate into the physical brain changes seen in patients.</p>
<p>To bridge this gap, a team of researchers led by Ying Zhai, Jinglei Xu, and Zhihui Zhang from Tianjin Medical University General Hospital conducted a large-scale study. They aimed to integrate data on brain structure, brain function, and genetics. Their primary objective was to find regions where structural and functional abnormalities overlap. They also sought to identify which genes might be responsible for these simultaneous changes.</p>
<p>The research team began by conducting a meta-analysis. This is a statistical method that combines data from many previous studies to find patterns that are too subtle for a single study to detect. They gathered data from 89 independent studies. </p>
<p>These included over 3,000 patients with major depressive disorder and a similar number of healthy control subjects for the structural analysis. The functional analysis included over 2,000 patients and controls. The researchers used a technique called voxel-wise analysis. This divides the brain into thousands of tiny three-dimensional cubes to pinpoint exactly where changes occur.</p>
<p>The team looked for three specific markers. First, they examined gray matter volume to assess physical structure. Second, they looked at regional homogeneity. This measures how synchronized a brain region is with its immediate neighbors. Third, they analyzed the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations. This indicates the intensity of spontaneous brain activity. By combining these metrics, the researchers created a detailed map of the “depressed brain.”</p>
<p>The analysis revealed widespread disruptions. The researchers found that patients with depression consistently showed reduced gray matter volume in several key areas. These included the median cingulate cortex, the insula, and the superior temporal gyrus. These regions are essential for processing emotions and sensing the body’s internal state.</p>
<p>The functional data showed a more complicated picture. In some areas, brain activity was lower than normal. In others, it was higher. The researchers then overlaid the structural and functional maps to find the convergence points. This multimodal analysis uncovered two distinct patterns of overlap.</p>
<p>The first pattern involved regions that showed both physical shrinkage and reduced functional activity. This “double hit” was observed primarily in the median cingulate cortex and the insula. The insula helps the brain interpret bodily sensations, such as heartbeat or hunger, and links them to emotions. A failure in this region could explain why depressed patients often feel physically lethargic or disconnected from their bodies. The reduced activity and volume suggest a breakdown in the neural circuits responsible for emotional and sensory integration.</p>
<p>The second pattern was unexpected. Some regions showed reduced gray matter volume but increased functional activity. This occurred in the anterior cingulate cortex and parts of the frontal lobe. These areas are involved in self-reflection and identifying errors. The researchers suggest this hyperactivity might be a form of compensation. </p>
<p>The brain may be working harder to maintain normal function despite physical deterioration. Alternatively, this high activity could represent neural noise or inefficient processing. This might contribute to the persistent rumination and negative self-focus that many patients experience.</p>
<p>After mapping these brain regions, the researchers investigated the genetic underpinnings. They used a large database of genetic information from over 170,000 depression cases. They applied a method called H-MAGMA to prioritize genes associated with the disorder. They identified 1,604 genes linked to depression risk. The team then used the Allen Human Brain Atlas to see where these genes are expressed in the human brain. This atlas maps gene activity across different brain tissues.</p>
<p>The team looked for a spatial correlation. They wanted to know if the depression-linked genes were most active in the same brain regions that showed structural and functional damage. The analysis was successful. They identified 279 genes that were spatially linked to the overlapping brain abnormalities. These genes were not randomly distributed. They were highly expressed in the specific areas where the researchers had found the “double hit” of shrinkage and altered activity.</p>
<p>The researchers then performed an enrichment analysis to understand what these 279 genes do. The results pointed toward biological processes that happen very early in life. The genes were heavily involved in the development of the nervous system. They play roles in neuron projection guidance, which is how neurons extend their fibers to connect with targets. They are also involved in synaptic signaling, the process by which neurons communicate.</p>
<p>The study also looked at when these genes are most active. The data showed that these genes are highly expressed during fetal development. They are particularly active in the cortex and hippocampus during the middle to late fetal stages. This suggests that the vulnerability to depression may be established long before birth. Disruptions in these genes during critical developmental windows could lead to the structural weak points identified in the MRI scans.</p>
<p>The researchers also examined which types of cells use these genes. They found that the genes were predominantly expressed in specific types of neurons in the cortex and striatum. This includes neurons that use dopamine, a chemical messenger vital for motivation and pleasure. This connects the genetic findings to the known symptoms of depression, such as anhedonia, or the inability to feel pleasure.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this study that should be noted. The meta-analysis relied on coordinates reported in previous papers rather than raw brain scans. This can slightly reduce the precision of the location data. Additionally, the gene expression data came from the Allen Human Brain Atlas, which is based on healthy adult brains. It does not reflect how gene expression might change in a depressed brain.</p>
<p>The study was also cross-sectional. This means it looked at a snapshot of patients at one point in time. It cannot prove that the brain shrinkage caused the depression or vice versa. The researchers also noted that demographic factors like age and sex influence brain structure. While they controlled for these variables statistically, future research should look at how these patterns differ between men and women or across different age groups.</p>
<p>Future research will need to verify these findings using longitudinal data. Scientists need to track individuals over time to see how gene expression interacts with environmental stressors to reshape the brain. The team suggests that future studies should also incorporate environmental data. Factors such as inflammation or stress exposure could modify how these risk genes affect brain structure.</p>
<p>This study represents a step forward in integrating different types of biological data. It moves beyond viewing depression as just a chemical imbalance or a structural deficit. Instead, it presents a cohesive model where genetic risks during development lead to specific structural and functional vulnerabilities. These physical changes then manifest as the emotional and cognitive symptoms of depression.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120700" target="_blank">Neuroimaging-genetic integration reveals shared structural and functional brain alterations in major depressive disorder</a>,” was authored by Ying Zhai, Jinglei Xu, Zhihui Zhang, Yue Wu, Qian Wu, Minghuan Lei, Haolin Wang, Qi An, Wenjie Cai, Shen Li, Quan Zhang, and Feng Liu.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/novel-essential-oil-blend-may-enhance-memory-and-alertness/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Novel essential oil blend may enhance memory and alertness</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 30th 2026, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study provides evidence that inhaling a specific blend of essential oils may improve cognitive performance in healthy adults. The research indicates that while this aromatic blend increases brain metabolism during mental tasks, these physiological changes do not directly explain the observed boost in memory and attention. These findings were published in the scientific journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.70027" target="_blank">Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental</a></em>.</p>
<p>The use of essential oils for psychological well-being is a practice with a long history, yet scientific validation for these effects varies across different substances. Previous investigations have identified that the aromas of single oils, such as rosemary and sage, appear to support memory retention and alertness. However, the practice of aromatherapy frequently relies on the blending of multiple oils to create potential synergistic effects.</p>
<p>Despite the popularity of these blends, the efficacy of combining oils has received limited empirical attention compared to single extracts. The creators of the “Genius” blend formulated it based on the purported cognitive benefits of ingredients like frankincense, cardamom, and patchouli. The researchers aimed to determine if this complex mixture could outperform a single oil known for its positive effects.</p>
<p>“I have been Interested in natural interventions to deliver cognitive enhancement for 30 years. For around 20 years, I have been looking at the effects of the aromas of essential oils on aspects of human behaviour including cognition, mood and stress,” said study author <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/m/mark-moss/" target="_blank">Mark Moss</a>, a professor and member of <a href="https://bpnrclab.com/" target="_blank">the Brain Performance and Nutrition Research Centre</a> at Northumbria University.</p>
<p>“Essential oils and aromas have been used in society since before the beginning of written records but the scientific investigation of their effects is lacking. I have an interest in conducting high quality research that can deliver reliable and valid findings in this area.”</p>
<p>The scientific team also sought to move beyond subjective reports and behavioral scores. A primary goal was to explore the biological mechanisms that might underpin these effects. Specifically, they investigated whether the inhalation of these aromas influences brain metabolism by measuring blood oxygenation levels during the performance of demanding mental tasks.</p>
<p>The study involved ninety healthy adult participants who were pseudo-randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions. To ensure a balanced sample, the groups were matched for gender and age. One group was exposed to the aroma of the Genius essential oil blend, which includes patchouli, neroli, grapefruit, cardamom, frankincense, spikenard, rosemary, and lemongrass.</p>
<p>A second group was exposed to the aroma of sage essential oil to serve as a positive control, given its established reputation for cognitive enhancement. A third group sat in an environment with no added aroma to function as a standard control comparison. The study utilized a double-blind design where neither the researchers administering the tests nor the participants knew which aroma condition was active.</p>
<p>Participants completed a battery of computerized cognitive assessments designed to measure memory, attention, and computational skills. These tasks included word recall, where participants had to remember a list of words, and serial subtraction, which required them to repeatedly subtract specific numbers from a starting figure. Other tasks involved sequence memory challenges known as Corsi blocks.</p>
<p>While performing these mental exercises, participants wore a headband equipped with near-infrared spectroscopy technology. This non-invasive device projected light through the skull to measure changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin in the prefrontal cortex. This provided the researchers with real-time data on brain metabolism and oxygen utilization.</p>
<p>Following the completion of the cognitive battery, the participants rated their current mood states. They specifically evaluated their levels of alertness and mental fatigue on visual analogue scales. This allowed the researchers to correlate subjective feelings of well-being with objective performance metrics.</p>
<p>The data analysis revealed significant improvements in performance for the group exposed to the Genius blend compared to the no-aroma control. These improvements were particularly notable in tasks requiring memory and executive function. For instance, participants in the blend condition performed better on word recall and numeric working memory tasks.</p>
<p>The blend also demonstrated superior effects compared to the sage essential oil condition in several performance metrics. This provides some evidence supporting the theory of synergy, where the combined effect of multiple oils may exceed the impact of a single component. The magnitude of the improvement was considered statistically significant.</p>
<p>Regarding subjective experience, participants in the Genius condition reported feeling significantly more alert by the end of the testing session. Perhaps most notably, they reported feeling significantly less fatigued than those in the control group. This buffering against mental exhaustion suggests that the aroma may help maintain stamina during cognitive exertion.</p>
<p>The physiological data gathered via the spectroscopy headbands showed that both aroma conditions led to increased oxygen extraction in the brain during tasks. The level of deoxygenated hemoglobin was significantly higher in the Genius aroma condition compared to the control. This indicates that the brain was extracting and utilizing more oxygen from the blood while the participants were inhaling the blend.</p>
<p>Despite these clear physiological changes, the researchers found no statistical correlation between the increased brain metabolism and the improved cognitive scores. The participants who showed the greatest increase in oxygen utilization were not necessarily the ones who performed best on the tests. This disconnect suggests that while the aroma increases brain energy usage, this mechanism does not directly account for the better test results.</p>
<p>The lack of correlation implies that other mechanisms may be driving the cognitive improvements. One possibility is a pharmacological effect, where chemical compounds from the oils are absorbed into the bloodstream through the lungs and cross into the brain. Another potential pathway is direct stimulation of the olfactory bulb, which has neural connections to brain areas involved in memory and emotion.</p>
<p>“The overall message is that aromas of essential oils can provide cheap, safe and accessible options for personal benefit,” Moss told PsyPost. “Inhalation of the ambient aroma of the essential oils we employed here (pure sage and a blend of oils) can positively affect cognition and mood, although only to a relatively small degree.</p>
<p>“Interestingly the reasons why these effects occur are not well understood at this time, and this study looked at one particular possibility. The brain uses a lot of energy when we apply it to completing tests of memory and similar. It is possible that breathing aromas could help the brain in delivering more energy to the tasks in hand. Although we found that increased energy production appeared to take place this was not related to levels of performance on the tasks. Other possible explanations are still to be tested in depth.”</p>
<p>The study, like all research, includes some caveats. The method of delivering the aroma involved a diffuser in a testing cubicle, which means the exact dose inhaled by each participant could vary based on their breathing patterns. This lack of standardization makes it difficult to establish precise dose-response relationships.</p>
<p>Additionally, the study focused on acute effects observed during a single session. It remains unknown whether these benefits would persist with long-term use or if users might develop a tolerance to the aromas. </p>
<p>“Next steps include finding good ways to standardise aroma delivery,” Moss explained. “Currently, it is all rather vague as people breathe at different rates and to different depths. It is hard to know exactly how much aroma is being delivered and this would be very useful to enable dose-response relationships to be identified. I am generally interested in continuing to apply scientific method to investigate effects that often exist as received wisdom.”</p>
<p>The researchers add that while essential oils offer a safe and accessible option for personal benefit, they function best as a complementary aid rather than a standalone medical treatment.</p>
<p>“The effects of aromas are generally relatively small, but beneficial. Don’t over interpret the findings of aroma research,” Moss said. “Aromas are not a panacea. They can be beneficial, generally within a framework of general healthy living. They can be beneficial in healthcare as part of an integrated healthcare system.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.70027" target="_blank">Aroma of Genius Essential Oil Blend Significantly Enhances Cognitive Performance and Brain Metabolism in Healthy Adults</a>,” was authored by Mark Moss, Jake Howarth, and Holly Moss.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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