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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/major-review-challenges-the-monogamy-superiority-myth/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Major review challenges the “monogamy-superiority myth”</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 5th 2026, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A new meta-analysis published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2025.2462988" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Journal of Sex Research</a></em> challenges the pervasive belief that monogamous relationships are inherently more satisfying than non-exclusive ones. By aggregating data from nearly 25,000 participants across dozens of studies, the research indicates that individuals in consensually non-monogamous relationships report levels of relationship and sexual satisfaction that are statistically indistinguishable from those in monogamous unions.</p>
<p>Western culture has historically established monogamy as the default and ideal standard for romantic relationships. This social norm is often accompanied by the assumption that exclusive partnerships provide superior psychological well-being, stability, and emotional security compared to other configurations.</p>
<p>Scholars refer to this prevailing cultural sentiment as the “monogamy-superiority myth.” It implies that any deviation from strict exclusivity is likely to result in jealousy, instability, or lower relationship quality.</p>
<p>Despite these social expectations, a significant number of people engage in consensual non-monogamy. This term serves as an umbrella for various relationship styles where partners agree to have multiple romantic or sexual connections simultaneously.</p>
<p>Common forms include polyamory, which focuses on maintaining multiple loving relationships, and open relationships, which often permit sexual contact outside the primary partnership. Estimates suggest that a notable minority of adults in Western nations have engaged in such relationships at some point in their lives.</p>
<p>“This study was motivated by a persistent cultural assumption that monogamous relationships are inherently more satisfying, healthier, or morally superior than consensually non-monogamous ones – an assumption that doesn’t reflect the lived realities of people in these relationships,” said study author <a href="https://scholars.latrobe.edu.au/jranderson" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Joel R. Anderson</a>, an associate professor and principal research fellow at the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society at La Trobe University, where he convenes <a href="https://www.latrobe.edu.au/arcshs/work/pride-research-collective" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the LGBTIQA+ Research Theme</a>.</p>
<p>“While individual studies had produced mixed findings, these beliefs continue to shape public attitudes, clinical practice, and policy in ways that stigmatize people in non-monogamous relationships. We wanted to systematically examine the full body of available evidence to see whether or not the data support the idea that monogamy is superior when it comes to relationship and sexual satisfaction.”</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a meta-analytic review. This statistical method allows researchers to combine the results of many independent studies to identify robust patterns that might be missed in smaller, isolated projects. The team performed a comprehensive search of six major academic databases to locate relevant research published up to 2024. They also reached out to experts in the field to request unpublished data to ensure a complete dataset.</p>
<p>The researchers established strict criteria for inclusion in the analysis. Studies had to provide quantitative measures of relationship satisfaction or sexual satisfaction. They also needed to explicitly categorize participants as either monogamous or consensually non-monogamous.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the team identified 35 suitable studies comprising a total of 24,489 participants. The majority of these studies were conducted in the United States, Canada, and Australia.</p>
<p>The primary analysis focused on comparing general relationship satisfaction between the two groups. The results showed no significant difference. The calculated effect size was negligible, meaning that the average level of happiness reported by monogamous individuals was essentially the same as that reported by non-monogamous individuals. This finding held true regardless of the specific scales used to measure satisfaction in the original studies.</p>
<p>The researchers also examined sexual satisfaction and found similar results. There was no statistical evidence to support the idea that monogamy leads to a better sexual life. Both groups reported comparable levels of fulfillment regarding their sexual experiences. This challenges the stereotype that non-monogamy is driven by sexual dissatisfaction within a primary partnership.</p>
<p>“The key takeaway is that there is no evidence that monogamous relationships are more satisfying or sexually fulfilling than consensually non-monogamous ones,” Anderson told PsyPost. “People can build happy, healthy, and satisfying relationships in different ways, and relationship quality appears to depend far more on factors like communication, consent, and compatibility than on the structure of the relationship itself.”</p>
<p>“Across more than 35 studies and nearly 25,000 participants, the overall differences were essentially zero. From a practical standpoint, this means that claims of monogamy’s inherent superiority are not just exaggerated – they’re unsupported by the evidence. At a population level, these findings matter because they challenge stereotypes that continue to justify stigma and unequal treatment.”</p>
<p>To provide a more nuanced understanding, the researchers investigated whether these results varied based on specific demographic factors. They separated the data to compare heterosexual samples with LGBTQ+ samples. The analysis revealed that sexual orientation did not influence the outcomes. In both straight and queer populations, the lack of difference in satisfaction between monogamous and non-monogamous individuals remained consistent.</p>
<p>The researchers also attempted to break down the non-monogamous category into specific relationship types where data permitted. These specific configurations included polyamory, swinging, open relationships, and “monogamish” arrangements.</p>
<p>While the overall trend showed no differences, some minor variations emerged in these subgroups. Participants in relationships described as “monogamish” reported slightly higher relationship satisfaction than strictly monogamous participants.</p>
<p>Regarding sexual satisfaction, specific subgroups also showed slight deviations. Individuals who identified as polyamorous or swingers reported marginally higher levels of sexual satisfaction compared to monogamous individuals. The researchers suggest this could be due to the emphasis on sexual exploration and communication inherent in swinging communities or the diverse needs met through multiple partners in polyamory. But these effects were small.</p>
<p>The research team also conducted tests to ensure the validity of their findings. They utilized statistical methods to check for publication bias, which occurs when studies with “exciting” or significant results are published more often than those with null results. Their assessment found no evidence of such bias. This consistency suggests that the finding of “no difference” is a genuine reflection of reality rather than an artifact of selective publishing.</p>
<p>“What stood out was how consistent the findings were across different populations, including heterosexual and LGBTQ+ samples, across different countries, and across different types of consensual non-monogamy,” Anderson said. “Despite very different social contexts and relationship agreements, satisfaction levels were remarkably similar.”</p>
<p>But as with all research, there are some caveats. A significant portion of the data relied on convenience sampling rather than random selection from the general population. This means the participants were often people who volunteered to talk about their relationships. It is possible that individuals who are unhappy in their non-monogamous relationships would be less likely to volunteer for such studies.</p>
<p>The geographic focus of the data also limits generalizability. Most of the participants were from Western, educated,, industrialized, rich, and democratic societies. The cultural context of these nations heavily influences how relationships are structured and perceived. Consequently, the findings may not apply to non-monogamous practices in non-Western cultures where social norms around marriage and dating differ.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study provides evidence countering the idea that monogamy is biologically or psychologically superior. The researchers argue that these findings should prompt a shift in how society and healthcare providers view alternative relationship structures. Mental health professionals are encouraged to recognize that non-monogamy can be a healthy and satisfying lifestyle choice rather than a symptom of dysfunction.</p>
<p>“A common misreading is that the findings suggest non-monogamy is ‘better’ than monogamy,” Anderson explained. “That’s not what we found. The point is not to rank relationship types, but to show that monogamy does not have a built-in advantage. People should be supported to pursue the relationship structures that work best for them, without moral judgment.”</p>
<p>Future research could explore how these relationship dynamics evolve over time. Most existing studies capture a single snapshot of a relationship. The researchers also call for more inclusive research that better differentiates between the vast array of non-monogamous configurations.</p>
<p>“Going forward, we’re interested in how stigma, disclosure, and institutional assumptions about relationships affect wellbeing, particularly in healthcare and therapeutic settings,” Anderson said. “Challenging the monogamy-superiority myth is one step toward more inclusive, evidence-based approaches to relationships and mental health.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2025.2462988" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Countering the Monogamy-Superiority Myth: A Meta-Analysis of the Differences in Relationship Satisfaction and Sexual Satisfaction as a Function of Relationship Orientation</a>,” was authored by Joel R. Anderson, Jordan D. X. Hinton, Alena Bondarchuk-McLaughlin, Scarlet Rosa, Kian Jin Tan, and Lily Moor.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/dark-personality-traits-are-linked-to-flirting-for-personal-gain/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Dark personality traits are linked to flirting for personal gain</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 5th 2026, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>New research provides evidence that people with darker personality traits are more likely to use flirting as a tool for personal gain rather than for romantic connection. The study suggests that while the social environment largely dictates when people flirt for love, individual personality features drive the decision to flirt for material rewards or favors. These findings were published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113565" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Personality and Individual Differences</a></em>.</p>
<p>Scientific inquiry into human interaction has identified various reasons why individuals engage in flirting. Some motivations are relational, meaning they are intended to start a new romance or deepen an existing bond. Other motivations are instrumental, where the goal is to secure a specific benefit or reward from another person.</p>
<p>Instrumental flirting can be purely utilitarian. An individual might flirt with a bartender to get a free drink or with a coworker to receive assistance on a project. While these distinctions are well-established, less was known about which types of people gravitate toward these specific behaviors.</p>
<p>“My coauthors and I were interested in addressing a gap in flirting research. Previous research has established several motivations people have for flirting (e.g., for romantic interest, for fun, for esteem-boosting),” said study author Braden T. Hall, a PhD student at the University of Alabama who collaborated with <a href="https://www.psychologyresearchthinktank.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the University of Alabama Psychology Research Think Tank</a>.</p>
<p>“However, little to no research has examined the individual differences that promote the chronic adoption of specific motives. We chose two contrasting personality frameworks (the Dark and Light Triads) to best illustrate the differential effects of individual differences in motive adoption.”</p>
<p>The Dark Triad is a psychological framework that describes three offensive personality traits. Narcissism involves a grand sense of self-importance and a persistent craving for validation. Machiavellianism is defined by the use of manipulation and a focus on self-interest over morality. Psychopathy is marked by a lack of empathy and callous behavior toward others.</p>
<p>The Light Triad represents the benevolent side of human personality. This group consists of faith in humanity, humanism, and Kantianism. Faith in humanity involves the belief that others are fundamentally good and worthy of trust. Humanism focuses on valuing the dignity and worth of every individual. Kantianism refers to acting with integrity and treating people as an end in themselves rather than as tools for success.</p>
<p>The researchers aimed to determine if these specific character traits could predict whether a person flirts to build a “we” or to benefit “me.” They proposed that people with manipulative tendencies would be more prone to instrumental flirting. They also anticipated that those with a communal orientation would prefer relational flirting.</p>
<p>To investigate these questions, the research team recruited a total of 2,865 participants. These individuals were organized into 955 groups, which the researchers referred to as triads. Each group consisted of one main participant and two informants who knew that person well.</p>
<p>The main participants were primarily female and white, with an average age of approximately 27 years. The use of informants allowed the researchers to gather data that extended beyond simple self-reports. This method helped minimize the potential for social desirability bias, where people might downplay their manipulative behaviors.</p>
<p>Participants and their informants completed a series of online surveys. They were first presented with a standardized definition of flirting to ensure consistency. They then reviewed examples of flirting in seven different social settings.</p>
<p>These settings included romantic contexts, sexual contexts, workplace environments, parties, restaurants or bars, schools, and interactions with strangers. For each setting, the participants rated the frequency and skill of the main participant’s flirting behavior. They also rated the underlying motives for that behavior.</p>
<p>The study measured relational motives by asking to what extent the person flirted to enhance a relationship. Instrumental motives were measured by asking to what extent the person flirted to get something they wanted. The researchers averaged the scores from the main participant and the two informants to create a composite score.</p>
<p>In addition to the flirting measures, the main participants completed assessments for the Dark Triad and Light Triad traits. The Dark Triad assessment evaluated levels of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. The Light Triad assessment measured faith in humanity, humanism, and Kantianism.</p>
<p>The researchers analyzed the data using multilevel modeling to account for the nested nature of the reports. They controlled for general flirting frequency and skill. This allowed them to isolate the specific influence of personality on motivation.</p>
<p>The results indicated that the Dark Triad traits were positively associated with instrumental flirting motives. Individuals who scored higher on the combined Dark Triad measure were more likely to use flirting to achieve goals or obtain resources. This effect was driven largely by Machiavellianism and psychopathy.</p>
<p>Narcissism showed a different pattern. This trait was unrelated to both relational and instrumental motives. The researchers suggest that narcissistic individuals may flirt simply to receive attention or admiration rather than to achieve a specific outcome.</p>
<p>The researchers found that the Light Triad traits were generally negatively associated with instrumental flirting. People who scored high on faith in humanity, humanism, and Kantianism were less likely to use flirting for manipulative purposes. This aligns with the moral focus of the Light Triad framework.</p>
<p>However, the Light Triad traits were mostly unrelated to relational flirting motives. Only humanism showed a small positive association with flirting to enhance relationships. This suggests that “light” personality traits do not necessarily make someone more likely to flirt for romance.</p>
<p>“We were surprised at the null relationships between Light Triad traits and relational flirting motives,” Hall told PsyPost. “We expected that individuals higher in these traits would be more inclined to form romantic relationships, but, in hindsight, perhaps these traits are not tapping into the individual differences that would affect such motives.”</p>
<p>The researchers also examined the role of the social setting. They found that the context of the interaction was a strong predictor of relational flirting. People were naturally more likely to flirt for relationship enhancement in romantic settings compared to other environments.</p>
<p>This implies that relational flirting is largely situational. It is driven by the opportunity for romance rather than by specific personality traits. In contrast, instrumental flirting appeared to be more strongly driven by disposition.</p>
<p>“I think this paper offers a nuanced view of the idea that some people are ‘flirty’ individuals,” Hall said. “I would want the average reader to understand that people do have somewhat consistent flirting behaviors (i.e., flirting is not merely a situation-specific behavior), and that these behaviors are motivated in certain ways toward certain goals. It also underscores the importance of considering where someone is coming from when you sense they are flirting with you.”</p>
<p>The study also revealed gender differences regarding instrumental motives. Women were found to be more likely to adopt instrumental flirting motives than men. The authors note that this may be because women are more often on the receiving end of material rewards in flirting contexts, such as free drinks.</p>
<p>The data indicated that instrumental flirting was less common when interacting with strangers or at school compared to romantic settings. However, instrumental motives were more common in sexual contexts. This is likely because the individuals are focused on achieving the specific goal of having sex.</p>
<p>The statistical associations were relatively small in size. This means that while personality plays a role, it is not the only factor influencing why people flirt. “The effects of the traits on flirting motives are subtle,” Hall noted. “However, these effects may compound over time and situations to create larger effects.”</p>
<p>There are some limitations to this research. The study relied on cross-sectional data. This prevents the researchers from proving that personality traits cause the adoption of specific flirting motives. It is possible that the relationship is influenced by a third variable.</p>
<p>It is also important to avoid overinterpreting the directionality of the findings. “An important caveat is that we are by no means suggesting that the effects travel in reverse,” Hall told PsyPost. “That is, we are not suggesting that people who flirt with more instrumental motives are narcissistic, Machiavellian, or psychopathic.”</p>
<p>The study used informant reports, which is a strength, but future research could benefit from other methods. For example behavioral observations in real-world settings could provide additional validity. The researchers expressed an interest in conducting field experiments in places where flirting commonly occurs. Bars, coffee shops, and parties could serve as venues for gathering qualitative data.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113565" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Flirting for me or flirting for we? The Dark and Light Triads as predictors of flirting motive</a>,” was authored by Braden T. Hall, Toni Rebaldo, Amelia Geist, Angel Reed, and Darren George.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/restoring-a-specific-protein-could-rewire-the-brain-in-down-syndrome/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Restoring a specific protein could rewire the brain in Down syndrome</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 4th 2026, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>Delivering a connection-building protein to star-shaped cells in the brain could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116300">reverse changes to neural circuits</a> seen in Down syndrome, according to new research my colleagues and I published in the journal Cell Reports.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/several-down-syndrome-features-may-be-linked-to-a-hyperactive-antiviral-immune-response-new-research-206924">Down syndrome</a> is caused by an error in cell division during development. Individuals receive three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the typical two copies, resulting in duplicates of the genes encoded on chromosome 21. This trisomy leads to a multitude of changes to heart and immune function as well as neurodevelopmental impairments.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-024-00866-2">Changes to the structure of neurons</a> in people with Down syndrome alter how they connect with each other. One major type of brain cell <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545142/">called astrocytes</a> helps form connections between neurons. These star-shaped cells have many thin arms that extend into the spaces between neurons. They also secrete various proteins that are vital to forming the proper neural connections necessary for brain function.</p>
<p>Researchers have found that mouse models of several neurodevelopmental disorders, including Down syndrome, have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01150-1">altered levels of astrocyte proteins</a> during development. <a href="https://allen.salk.edu/">My colleagues</a> <a href="https://med.virginia.edu/neuroscience/faculty/primary-faculty/ashley-brandebura-ph-d/">and I</a> hypothesized that these changes might contribute to the changes in neural connections seen in Down syndrome. Could restoring the proper levels of some of these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116300">astrocyte proteins “rewire” the brain</a>?</p>
<h2>Identifying an astrocyte protein</h2>
<p>First, we needed to pick a candidate astrocyte protein to test our hypothesis. A previous study had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01150-1">identified a list of astrocyte proteins</a> that were altered in a mouse model of Down syndrome. We focused on proteins present in lower levels in Down syndrome astrocytes compared to astrocytes without the condition. We thought there might not be enough of these proteins available to help form neural connections.</p>
<p>Among the top 10 proteins we identified was a molecule <a href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/2N6F">called pleiotrophin, or Ptn</a>. This protein is known to help guide axons – long extensions that neurons use to send information to each other – to their targets during development. So it made sense that it might also help neurons form the branching arms they use to receive information.</p>
<p>We found that mice unable to produce Ptn had neurons with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116300">fewer branching arms</a>, similar to what we saw in mice with Down syndrome. This correlation implies that proper Ptn levels are necessary to affect neuron branching during brain development.</p>
<h2>Restoring neurons in Down syndrome</h2>
<p>Next, we wanted to know if delivering Ptn to astrocytes changes neural connections in mice with Down syndrome.</p>
<p>To answer that question, we packaged the gene for Ptn into a small virus with its replication genes removed. Called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-024-01780-w">adeno-associated viruses</a>, these tools allow researchers to deliver genetic material to specific targets in the body and are used for <a href="https://theconversation.com/first-gene-therapy-for-tay-sachs-disease-successfully-given-to-two-children-176870">applications like gene therapy</a>. We delivered the Ptn gene into astrocytes throughout the entire brain of adult mice with Down syndrome so we could evaluate its effects.</p>
<p>We focused on the visual cortex and the hippocampus, areas of the brain involved in vision and memory that are both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(81)90314-0">critically affected</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190645441.013.16">in Down syndrome</a>. After enhancing the ability of astrocytes to produce Ptn, we found that both regions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116300">recovered levels of neural branching density</a> similar to those of mice without Down syndrome.</p>
<p>Finally, we wanted to see if we could actually restore electrical activity levels in the hippocampus by increasing astrocyte Ptn levels. Measuring electrical activity can indicate whether neurons are functioning properly. After delivering the Ptn gene to the astrocytes of mice with Down syndrome, we found the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116300">electrical activity of their hippocampus restored</a> to levels no different from mice without Down syndrome.</p>
<p>Together, our findings show that delivering Ptn to the astrocytes of mice can reverse changes to neuron structure and function seen in Down syndrome. While our findings are far from ready to be used in the clinic, more research could help us understand whether and how Ptn could help improve the health of human patients.</p>
<h2>Rewiring the brain</h2>
<p>More broadly, our findings suggest that astrocyte proteins have the potential to rewire the brain in other neurodevelopmental conditions.</p>
<p>Typically, <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-brain-plasticity-2794886">adult brains have low plasticity</a>, meaning they have a decreased capacity to form new connections between neurons. This means it can be difficult to change neural circuits in adults. Our hope is that further exploration on how astrocyte proteins can alter the adult brain could lead to new treatments for neurodevelopmental disorders like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/scisignal.adj1234">Fragile X syndrome or Rett syndrome</a>, or to neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-022-00641-1">Parkinson’s disease</a>.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/268739/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/star-shaped-cells-make-a-molecule-that-can-rewire-the-brains-of-mice-with-down-syndrome-understanding-how-could-lead-to-new-treatments-268739">original article</a>.</em></p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/faster-biological-aging-predicts-lower-cognitive-test-scores-7-years-later/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Faster biological aging predicts lower cognitive test scores 7 years later</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 4th 2026, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>An analysis of the Framingham Heart Study data found that higher epigenetic aging metrics predicted lower scores on the digital Clock Drawing Test 7 years later. The strongest association was with DunedinPACE, a biomarker of the pace of biological aging. The research was published in <a href="https://www.aging-us.com/article/206285/text"><em>Aging</em></a>.</p>
<p>As people age, their DNA molecules undergo specific chemical changes. These changes mainly involve the addition or removal of methyl groups at CpG sites on the DNA molecule, a process known as DNA methylation. DNA methylation alters gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself. CpG sites are locations on a DNA molecule where a cytosine nucleotide is directly followed by a guanine nucleotide.</p>
<p>Age-related changes in DNA methylation occur in systematic patterns, allowing researchers to use methylation levels at specific sites as a measure of a person’s biological age (i.e., how old that individual’s body appears to be based on physiological, molecular, or functional markers), called epigenetic age.</p>
<p>Scientists measure epigenetic age by analyzing methylation levels at selected DNA sites using blood or other tissue samples. Statistical models combine information from these sites to estimate a person’s epigenetic age. This estimated age can be compared to chronological age (i.e., how old a person actually is) to assess whether a person’s aging is accelerated or slowed. If epigenetic age is higher than chronological age, it suggests faster biological aging.</p>
<p>Systems for estimating epigenetic age are called epigenetic clocks. Epigenetic aging has been associated with health outcomes such as disease risk, functional decline, and mortality.</p>
<p>Study author Zexu Li and his colleagues wanted to explore the relationship between measures of epigenetic aging and performance on the digital Clock Drawing Test. The Clock Drawing Test is a brief neuropsychological screening test in which a person is asked to draw a clock showing a specific time. It is used to assess cognitive functions such as visuospatial ability, executive functioning, and memory, as a screening tool for detecting cognitive changes.</p>
<p>Previous studies suggested that accelerated epigenetic aging might be a risk factor for cognitive decline. Based on this, study authors hypothesized that accelerated epigenetic aging at one time point might be associated with worse performance on the digital Clock Drawing Test later in life.</p>
<p>These researchers analyzed data from 1,789 individuals who participated in the Framingham Heart Study. Participants’ average age was 65 years. 53% were women.</p>
<p>Study authors used data on epigenetic age estimated by four different epigenetic clocks—Horvath, Hannum, GrimAge, and PhenoAge—and one measure of the pace of biological aging, DunedinPACE. The epigenetic clocks estimate epigenetic age based on patterns of DNA methylation on selected CpG sites, while DunedinPACE estimates the pace of biological aging. All were developed using statistical or machine-learning-based models to predict specific aging-related outcomes. These clocks differ in the outcome they were created to predict. </p>
<p>For example, the Hannum clock was developed to predict chronological age, while GrimAge was optimized to predict time to death by incorporating DNA-methylation proxies for plasma proteins and smoking exposure. Data on participants’ performance on the digital Clock Drawing Test were collected approximately seven years after the epigenetic age and pace of biological aging estimates.</p>
<p>Results showed that higher epigenetic age acceleration at the start of the study was associated with lower digital Clock Drawing Test scores later. These associations were stronger in older individuals. The strongest association was with the DunedinPACE estimates. Associations were substantial with Horvath and PhenoAge clocks in older, but not in younger, participants. Additionally, some components of the GrimAge clock were associated with poorer cognitive performance.</p>
<p>“Our findings suggest that advanced biological aging, particularly as captured by DunedinPACE and GrimAge components, is significantly associated with poorer cognitive performance measured by dCDT [digital clock drawing test], especially in older adults, highlighting a potential link between systemic aging processes and cognitive decline**,” the** study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between cognitive performance and biological age. However, study authors note that the diversity of their participants was limited as all were non-Hispanic White. Results in more diverse groups might not be identical.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://www.aging-us.com/article/206285/text">Association of DNA methylation age acceleration with digital clock drawing test performance: the Framingham Heart Study,</a>” was authored by Zexu Li, Huitong Ding, Mengyao Wang, Yi Li, Ting Fang Alvin Ang, Gurnani Ashita, Katherine A. Gifford, Cody Karjadi, Daniel Levy, Rhoda Au, and Chunyu Liu.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/rising-psychedelic-use-has-not-led-to-a-corresponding-surge-in-hospital-admissions/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Rising psychedelic use has not led to a corresponding surge in hospital admissions</a>
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<p><p>A new analysis suggests that while the use of psychedelic substances appears to be increasing in the United States, this trend has not resulted in a corresponding surge in emergency room visits or hospitalizations. The findings indicate that severe adverse events requiring hospital care for hallucinogens remain comparatively rare when measured against other substances like alcohol and opioids. This research was published in <em><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2841328" target="_blank">JAMA Network Open</a></em>.</p>
<p>The cultural landscape regarding psychedelics is shifting rapidly in the United States. Changes in state and local laws regarding decriminalization are occurring alongside increased media attention on the potential therapeutic benefits of drugs like psilocybin and MDMA. Government agencies have granted breakthrough therapy designations to some of these substances, acknowledging their potential medical utility.</p>
<p>This changing landscape raises important safety questions for public health officials. It is necessary to understand whether increased availability and reduced stigma are leading to more adverse health outcomes in the general population. Jacob Steinle, a psychiatry resident, and <a href="https://sites.wustl.edu/kevinxulab/about-the-principal-investigator/" target="_blank">Kevin Xu</a>, an assistant professor at Washington University in St. Louis, led an investigation to address this gap.</p>
<p>“Hallucinogen use is increasing in recreational settings, and legislation around clinical use is evolving,” explained Steinle. “Prior to the study, relatively little was known about the safety of these substances in real-world settings beyond small clinical trials or theoretical risk assessments. We wanted to investigate the prevalence of hospitalizations associated with hallucinogens to address this knowledge gap.”</p>
<p>To address this, the research team designed a retrospective cohort study using large-scale administrative data. They utilized records from the Merative MarketScan Commercial and Multi-State Medicaid databases.</p>
<p>These databases provide a comprehensive view of healthcare claims from a diverse population across the country. The study period spanned seven years, covering data from 2016 through 2023. The investigators specifically focused on individuals between the ages of 16 and 64 years.</p>
<p>This age range captures the demographic groups most likely to engage in substance use. The researchers focused on identifying specific medical codes associated with hallucinogen-related disorders. They used the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, known as ICD-10.</p>
<p>Specifically, they looked for the code F16, which denotes hallucinogen-related issues in medical records. The team calculated the monthly rate of these admissions to track changes over time. They expressed this rate as a proportion of all substance-related emergency or hospital admissions.</p>
<p>This method allowed them to standardize the data and account for general fluctuations in healthcare utilization. To analyze trends over time, the authors employed Bayesian multiple change-point models. This statistical approach helps identify specific moments in time when a trend significantly changes direction.</p>
<p>The final dataset included 1,355,161 individuals who had at least one substance-related admission during the study period. Within this large cohort, 21,700 individuals had an admission specifically related to hallucinogens. This figure represents approximately 1.6 percent of the total group. The median age of individuals admitted for hallucinogen-related issues was 28 years. </p>
<p>“Despite fairly dramatic increases in hallucinogen use, we are not seeing a clear trend of increased hospitalizations—a proxy for severe adverse events,” Steinle told PsyPost. “Moreover, compared to substances like alcohol, amphetamines, and opioids, hallucinogens account for an incredibly small proportion of substance-related hospital admissions.”</p>
<p>The researchers also examined the insurance coverage of these patients. Approximately 60 percent of those with hallucinogen admissions were covered by Medicaid. Among the Medicaid enrollees where race and ethnicity data were recorded, the study provided a demographic breakdown. Non-Hispanic Black individuals accounted for 47.1 percent of these admissions. Non-Hispanic White individuals made up 44.1 percent, while Hispanic individuals accounted for 4.2 percent.</p>
<p>The investigators analyzed the psychiatric history of the patients in the six months leading up to the hospital admission. They found that 35 percent of the patients had a previously diagnosed mood disorder. </p>
<p>About 29.2 percent of the individuals had a diagnosis of anxiety prior to their admission. Additionally, nearly 15 percent had a diagnosis related to schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. </p>
<p>The study also noted the presence of other substance-related disorders in the patient histories. Roughly 18.9 percent of the patients had a history of non-nicotine substance disorders. This included issues with cannabis, alcohol, stimulants, and opioids. </p>
<p>The analysis of temporal trends revealed distinct patterns in the data. In January 2016, hallucinogen-related admissions made up 0.59 percent of all substance admissions. This proportion gradually increased over the next few years. The statistical models identified a period of growth until April 2020.</p>
<p>By early 2021, the monthly share had reached a peak of 1.18 percent. This suggests a rising burden of hallucinogen-related care leading up to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the peak in early 2020, the trend reversed direction.</p>
<p>The rate of admissions began to decline through the year 2023. By the end of the study, the rates had leveled off. Despite the fluctuations, the overall numbers remained low relative to other substances.</p>
<p>The rates stabilized at a level slightly higher than where they started in 2016. However, they did not continue the upward trajectory that characterized the pre-2020 period. The study highlighted a significant disparity between hallucinogens and other drugs.</p>
<p>Alcohol-related admissions accounted for the largest share of visits, rising from approximately 48 percent to nearly 60 percent. Opioid admissions displayed a steady decline from roughly 29 percent to near 20 percent. Stimulant admissions grew from under 20 percent to surpass opioids by the end of the study.</p>
<p>Hallucinogens consistently accounted for a very minor percentage of the total admissions. This context provides evidence that the acute public health burden of hallucinogens is relatively low.</p>
<p>“The results were largely consistent with existing clinical trial data showing very low rates of adverse effects such as substance-induced psychosis,” Steinle said. “What is striking, however, is just how infrequent these events appear to be compared to other substances that can trigger psychotic episodes, such as cannabis and stimulants.”</p>
<p>However, adverse events may occur that do not result in a hospital visit. People experiencing difficult psychedelic experiences may be managed by friends or sitters outside of medical settings. Consequently, hospital data likely captures only the most severe reactions. Because of this, the true prevalence of adverse effects could be higher than hospital records suggest.</p>
<p>“While we did not observe a substantial increase in adverse events related to hallucinogens despite rising use, this does not mean these substances are safe in recreational contexts,” Steinle said.</p>
<p>Looking forward, the researchers plan to investigate the dominance of alcohol in substance admissions more thoroughly. They intend to compare alcohol-related trends with those of cannabis.</p>
<p>“The incidental, but noteworthy, finding regarding alcohol’s increasing prevalence in substance-related admissions has prompted us to investigate this trend more closely, specifically comparing and contrasting its use with cannabis, when stratifying by age,” Steinle said. “We also have ongoing work examining how certain states are implementing psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy and evaluating the rigor of their client screening processes.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2841328" target="_blank">Trends in Hallucinogen-Related Emergency Department and Hospital Admissions, 2016 to 2023</a>,” was authored by Jacob T. Steinle, Lisa Gong, Joanna L. Buss, Suraj Shankar, Joshua S. Siegel, Leopoldo J. Cabassa, Ruth Ling, Regina Huang, Danielle R. Adams, Patricia Cavazos-Rehg, Arpana Agrawal, Ginger E. Nicol, Richard Grucza, R. J. Waken, and Kevin Y. Xu.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/brain-scans-reveal-an-emotional-advantage-for-modest-people/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Brain scans reveal an emotional advantage for modest people</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jan 4th 2026, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>Social feedback shapes human behavior and self-perception in profound ways. New research suggests that the personality trait of modesty alters how the human brain processes these social evaluations. The findings indicate that modest individuals may possess a distinct neural advantage that allows them to handle rejection more calmly while still fully appreciating acceptance. The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.70395" target="_blank">Human Brain Mapping</a></em>.</p>
<p>Most people possess an innate drive for self-enhancement. This psychological motivation leads individuals to seek positive evaluations and avoid negative ones. When a person receives feedback that validates their positive self-image, the experience is rewarding. Conversely, criticism or rejection often triggers psychological distress. This dynamic creates a challenge for emotion regulation.</p>
<p>Individuals frequently attempt to manage the distress of negative feedback through various strategies. One common method is expressive suppression, where a person consciously hides their emotional reaction. While this might mask outward signs of upset, it often fails to alleviate the internal negative experience. Suppression can also have the unintended side effect of dampening positive emotions. This leaves many people in a dilemma where avoiding pain comes at the cost of experiencing less joy.</p>
<p>Xin Wang, Chuhua Zheng, and Yanhong Wu conducted this investigation to explore an alternative approach to this emotional dilemma. Wang and Wu are affiliated with the School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences at Peking University in Beijing, China. Zheng is associated with the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China. The team investigated whether modesty could serve as a buffer against the sting of negative feedback without blunting the pleasure of positive social interactions.</p>
<p>The researchers defined modesty not as low self-esteem, but as a specific perspective on the self. In this context, modesty involves a low self-focus. Modest individuals tend to view themselves as a single part of a larger world. They recognize the value and contributions of others and do not remain hyper-focused on their own status. The researchers hypothesized that this trait might allow for a “double win” in emotion regulation. They predicted that modest people would experience fewer negative emotions during rejection but would still experience strong positive emotions during acceptance.</p>
<p>To test this hypothesis, the researchers recruited 47 young adults to participate in a neuroimaging study. The participants entered a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner to have their brain activity recorded. While inside the scanner, the participants completed a task known as the Social Judgment Paradigm. This is a standardized psychological experiment designed to simulate the experience of being evaluated by peers.</p>
<p>Prior to the scan, participants were told that a group of peers had viewed their photographs. During the task, the participants viewed the faces of these peers one by one. For each face, the participant had to predict whether that peer liked or disliked them. Following this prediction, the screen displayed the actual feedback. This setup created four distinct scenarios for the brain to process. These included expected acceptance, expected rejection, unexpected acceptance, and unexpected rejection.</p>
<p>The researchers analyzed the behavioral data first. They looked at how the participants’ self-reported levels of modesty correlated with their emotional regulation strategies. The data showed that highly modest individuals were less likely to use expressive suppression. This suggests that when modest people appear calm in the face of feedback, it is not because they are forcefully holding back their reactions. They are simply not engaging in the effortful masking of their feelings.</p>
<p>The functional MRI data revealed how modesty correlates with brain activity during unexpected events. When participants received feedback that did not match their predictions, specific brain regions became active. In participants with lower levels of modesty, unexpected feedback triggered high activity in the inferior parietal lobe and the superior temporal gyrus. Neuroscientists associate the inferior parietal lobe with self-referential processing. High activity here often signals that the brain is intensely focusing on the self.</p>
<p>In contrast, the brain scans of highly modest individuals showed a different pattern. When they encountered unexpected feedback, there was significantly reduced activation in the inferior parietal lobe. The researchers interpret this as neural evidence of the “low self-focus” characteristic of modesty. When the external feedback contradicted their expectations, modest participants did not dwell on the discrepancy. They processed the information without the intense self-centered cognitive reaction seen in less modest participants.</p>
<p>The study also examined how the brain responded to the specific quality of the feedback, comparing acceptance against rejection. The researchers found that modesty modulated activity in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. This region of the brain is deeply involved in processing rewards and assessing value. It also plays a role in regulating emotional responses.</p>
<p>When modest participants received acceptance feedback, they showed robust activation in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. This contradicts the idea that modesty implies a lack of interest in what others think. Instead, it suggests that modest individuals find social acceptance to be highly rewarding. The neural evidence points to a strong positive experience when establishing a connection with others.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a further analysis known as psychophysiological interaction. This technique allows scientists to see how different parts of the brain communicate with one another during a task. The team looked specifically at the connection between the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and the inferior frontal gyrus. The inferior frontal gyrus is a region often associated with inhibition and cognitive control.</p>
<p>The analysis showed that for modest individuals, there was a negative connectivity between these two regions during social feedback. The researchers suggest this connectivity pattern indicates a lack of inhibitory suppression. Instead of the brain’s control center clamping down on the reward center, the two regions worked in a way that supported positive reappraisal. Modest individuals appeared to regulate their emotions by reinterpreting the situation rather than suppressing their feelings.</p>
<p>These neural findings aligned with the participants’ self-reports. Modest individuals reported feeling more positive emotions when they received expected acceptance. Their mood ratings remained higher than those of less modest participants in similar conditions. The combination of behavioral and neural data supports the idea that modesty allows for an adaptive response to social judgment.</p>
<p>The authors note that the brain activity observed in non-modest individuals aligns with previous research on “social pain.” Rejection and unexpected negative feedback often activate the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, a region associated with the distress of physical pain. By maintaining a lower focus on the self, modest individuals appear to bypass some of this neural alarm system. They can “take the rough with the smooth,” accepting criticism without deep distress while still enjoying praise.</p>
<p>There are limitations to the generalizability of these findings. The study sample consisted of university students in China. Cultural values regarding modesty vary significantly across the world. In collectivist cultures, modesty is often highly valued and emphasized in social upbringing. It is possible that the neural mechanisms observed here are influenced by this cultural context. Research with Western populations would be necessary to see if the same brain patterns emerge where self-enhancement is more culturally encouraged.</p>
<p>Another caveat is the nature of the experimental task. The Social Judgment Paradigm uses static photographs and binary feedback. It is a controlled laboratory approximation of social interaction. Real-world relationships are dynamic and reciprocal. The emotional weight of feedback from a close friend or a family member differs from that of a stranger in a photograph. The current study cannot fully capture the complexity of these long-term emotional bonds.</p>
<p>Future research directions could address these limitations. The authors suggest investigating the long-term effects of social feedback on modest individuals. It would be valuable to understand if the protective benefits of modesty persist over time or if they are specific to immediate feedback. Additionally, understanding these mechanisms could help in the development of interventions for social anxiety. If people can learn to adopt a “modest mindset” by temporarily lowering their self-focus, they might navigate social rejection with greater resilience.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.70395" target="_blank">‘Take the Rough With the Smooth’: Modesty Modulates Neurocognitive and Emotional Processing of Social Feedback</a>,” was authored by Xin Wang, Chuhua Zheng, and Yanhong Wu.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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