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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/not-all-psychopathic-traits-are-equal-when-it-comes-to-sexual-aggression/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Not all psychopathic traits are equal when it comes to sexual aggression</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 22nd 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>Recent research published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.70017" target="_blank">Journal of Personality</a></em> provides a comprehensive look at the relationship between psychopathy and sexual aggression. By aggregating data from over one hundred separate samples, the researchers determined that while psychopathy is generally associated with sexually aggressive behavior, the connection varies depending on the specific type of aggression and the specific personality traits involved. These findings help clarify which aspects of the psychopathic personality are most dangerous regarding sexual violence.</p>
<p>The rationale for this large-scale analysis stems from the serious societal impact of sexual aggression. This term covers a wide range of non-consensual sexual activities, including the use of physical force, coercion, and verbal manipulation. Previous scientific literature has established a link between psychopathy and antisocial behavior. </p>
<p>However, prior summaries of the data primarily focused on whether sexual offenders would re-offend after being released from prison. There was a gap in understanding the fundamental relationship between psychopathy and sexual aggression across different populations, such as community members or college students, rather than just convicted criminals.</p>
<p>Additionally, the researchers sought to understand psychopathy not as a single block of negative traits but as a nuanced personality structure. They employed the triarchic model of psychopathy to do this. This model breaks psychopathy down into three distinct components: boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. </p>
<p>Boldness involves social dominance, emotional resilience, and venturesomeness. Meanness encompasses a lack of empathy and cruelty. Disinhibition refers to impulsivity and a lack of restraint. The researchers wanted to see how these specific dimensions related to different forms of sexual violence, such as rape, child molestation, and sexual harassment.</p>
<p>To conduct this investigation, the research team performed a meta-analysis. This is a statistical method that combines the results of multiple independent studies to identify broader patterns that a single study might miss. They performed a systematic search of databases for studies published between 1980 and early 2023. </p>
<p>To be included, a study had to involve adult participants and measure both psychopathy and sexual aggression. The final analysis included 117 independent samples from 95 studies, representing a total of 41,009 participants. The samples were diverse, including forensic groups like prisoners, as well as college students and community members.</p>
<p>A major challenge the researchers faced was that not every study used the same questionnaire to measure psychopathy. Some used the well-known Psychopathy Checklist, while others used self-report surveys. To solve this, the team used a statistical technique called relative weights analysis. This allowed them to estimate the levels of boldness, meanness, and disinhibition present in various psychopathy measures. </p>
<p>By calculating these weights, they could infer how the three traits influenced sexual aggression even in studies that did not explicitly use the triarchic model. They then ran statistical models to see how strong the associations were and tested for potential influencing factors, such as the gender of the participants or the type of measurement tool used.</p>
<p>The results of the meta-analysis showed a moderate, positive relationship between general psychopathy and general sexual aggression. This means that as psychopathic traits increase, the likelihood of committing sexually aggressive acts tends to increase as well. This pattern held true for several specific types of offending. The study found positive associations between psychopathy and sexual homicide, sexual sadism, voyeurism, exhibitionism, and online sexual harassment. The connection was particularly strong for sexual cyberbullying and harassment.</p>
<p>However, the findings revealed important exceptions. When the researchers looked specifically at rape and child molestation, the results were different. The analysis did not find a significant statistical link between global psychopathy scores and rape or child molestation in the aggregate data. This suggests that while psychopathy is a risk factor for many types of antisocial sexual behavior, it may not be the primary driver for these specific offenses in every case, or the relationship is more complex than a simple direct correlation.</p>
<p>When the researchers broke down psychopathy into its triarchic components, the picture became clearer. They found that meanness and disinhibition were positively related to sexual aggression. Individuals who scored high on traits involving cruelty, lack of empathy, and poor impulse control were more likely to engage in sexually aggressive behavior. This aligns with theories that sexual aggression often involves a failure to inhibit sexual impulses and a disregard for the suffering of others.</p>
<p>In contrast, the trait of boldness showed a different pattern. The researchers found that boldness was negatively related to sexual aggression. This implies that the socially dominant and emotionally resilient aspects of psychopathy might actually reduce the risk of committing sexual aggression, or at least are not the traits driving it. Boldness is often associated with adaptive social functioning, which might explain why it does not track with these maladaptive behaviors in the same way meanness and disinhibition do.</p>
<p>The study also identified several factors that influenced the strength of these relationships. The type of sample mattered. The link between psychopathy and sexual aggression was stronger in samples of sexual offenders compared to samples of students or the general community. This difference suggests that in forensic populations, where psychopathy scores might be higher or more severe, the trait plays a larger role in aggressive behavior.</p>
<p>Measurement methods also played a role. The relationship appeared stronger when sexual aggression was measured using risk assessment tools rather than self-report surveys. Risk assessment tools often include items related to criminal history and antisocial behavior, which naturally overlap with psychopathy. This could artificially inflate the apparent connection. Conversely, studies that relied on medical records or clinician ratings tended to show weaker associations than those using self-reports.</p>
<p>The findings regarding child molestation were particularly distinct. When child molestation was removed from the general category of sexual aggression, the overall link with psychopathy became stronger. This indicates that child molestation may be etiologically distinct from other forms of sexual violence. The researchers noted that child molesters often score lower on psychopathy measures compared to other types of sexual offenders. This group might be driven by different psychological mechanisms than the callousness and impulsivity that characterize psychopathy.</p>
<p>There are some limitations. The studies included in the meta-analysis varied widely in their methods, populations, and definitions. This high level of heterogeneity means that the average results might not apply perfectly to every specific situation or individual. </p>
<p>Additionally, the relative weights analysis relies on estimating trait levels rather than measuring them directly, which introduces a layer of abstraction. Some specific forms of aggression, like sexual homicide, had very few studies available, which makes those specific findings less robust than the general ones.</p>
<p>Future research could benefit from more direct measurements of the triarchic traits in relation to sexual violence. The researchers suggest that simply looking at a total psychopathy score obscures important details. Understanding that meanness and disinhibition are the primary danger signals, while boldness is not, allows for more precise risk assessment.</p>
<p>In terms of practical implications, these results suggest that prevention and treatment programs should focus heavily on the specific deficits associated with meanness and disinhibition. Interventions that target empathy deficits and impulse control may be more effective than broad approaches. Furthermore, the lack of a strong link with child molestation indicates that this population requires a different conceptual framework and treatment approach than other sexual offenders.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.70017" target="_blank">Psychopathy and sexual aggression: A meta-analysis</a>,” was authored by Inti Brazil, Larisa McLoughlin, and colleagues.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-research-identifies-a-simple-trait-that-has-a-huge-impact-on-attractiveness/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New psychology research identifies a simple trait that has a huge impact on attractiveness</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 22nd 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>New research suggests that a potential partner’s willingness to protect you from physical danger is a primary driver of attraction, often outweighing their actual physical strength. The findings indicate that these preferences likely stem from evolutionary adaptations to dangerous ancestral environments, persisting even in modern, relatively safe societies. This study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106745" target="_blank">Evolution and Human Behavior</a></em>.</p>
<p>Throughout human evolutionary history, physical violence from other humans posed a significant and recurrent threat to survival. In these ancestral settings, individuals did not have access to modern institutions like police forces or judicial systems. Instead, they relied heavily on social alliances, including romantic partners and friends, for defense against aggression. Consequently, evolutionary psychology posits that humans may have evolved specific preferences for partners who demonstrate both the capacity and the motivation to provide physical protection.</p>
<p>Previous scientific inquiries into partner choice have frequently focused on physical strength or formidability. These studies often operated under the assumption that strength serves as a direct cue for protective capability. But physical strength and the willingness to use it are distinct traits. A physically powerful individual might not be inclined to intervene in a dangerous situation, whereas a less formidable individual might be ready to defend an ally regardless of the personal risk. </p>
<p>Past investigations rarely separated these two factors, making it difficult to determine whether people value the ability to fight or the commitment to do so. The authors of the current study aimed to disentangle the capacity for violence from the motivation to employ it in defense of a partner. They sought to understand if the mere willingness to face a threat is sufficient to increase a person’s desirability as a friend or mate.</p>
<p>“Nowadays, many of us live in societies where violence is exceedingly rare, and protection from violence is considered the responsibility of police and courts. As such, you wouldn’t really predict that people should care if their romantic partner or friends are or are not willing to step up to protect them during an altercation,” said study author <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/michaelbarlev" target="_blank">Michael Barlev</a>, a research assistant professor at Arizona State University.</p>
<p>“However, for almost the entire history of our species, for hundreds of thousands of years, we lived in a social world scarred by violence, multiple orders of magnitude higher than it is today, and where protection was the responsibility of romantic partners, family, friends, and coalitional allies. Our psychology, including what we look for in romantic partners and friends, evolved to survive in such a world.”</p>
<p>To investigate this, the research team conducted a series of seven experiments involving a total of 4,508 adults from the United States. Participants were recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk. The study utilized a vignette-based methodology where participants read detailed scenarios asking them to imagine they were with a partner, either a date or a friend.</p>
<p>In the primary scenario used across the experiments, the participant and their partner are described leaving a restaurant. They are then approached by an intoxicated aggressor who attempts to strike the participant. The researchers systematically manipulated the partner’s reaction to this immediate threat.</p>
<p>In the “willing” condition, the partner notices the danger and physically intervenes to shield the participant. In the “unwilling” condition, the partner sees the threat but steps away, leaving the participant exposed. A control condition was also included where the partner simply does not see the threat in time to react. In addition to these behavioral variations, the researchers modified the descriptions of the partner’s physical strength, labeling them as weaker than average, average, or stronger than average.</p>
<p>The data revealed that discovering a person is willing to protect significantly increased their attractiveness rating as a romantic partner or friend. This effect appeared consistent regardless of the partner’s described physical strength. The findings suggest that the intent to defend an ally is a highly valued trait in itself. In contrast, partners who stepped away from the threat saw a sharp decline in their desirability ratings compared to the control condition.</p>
<p>“We present evidence that our partner choice preferences—what we look for in romantic partners and friends—are adapted to ancestral environments,” Barlev told PsyPost. “I think that is a very important—and generally unappreciated—fact about partner choice preferences, and psychology more generally.”</p>
<p>The researchers also uncovered distinct patterns based on gender, particularly regarding the penalty for unwillingness. When women evaluated male dates, a refusal to protect acted as a severe penalty to attractiveness. The ratings for unwilling men dropped precipitously, suggesting that for women seeking male partners, a lack of protective instinct is effectively a dealbreaker.</p>
<p>Men also valued willingness in female partners, but they were more lenient toward unwillingness. When men evaluated female dates who stepped away from the threat, the decline in attractiveness was less severe than what women reported for unwilling men. This asymmetry aligns with evolutionary theories regarding sexual dimorphism and the historical division of risk in physical conflicts.</p>
<p>“We found that willingness was hugely important, for raters of both sexes, and when rating both male and female friends and dates,” Barlev said. “In particular, when women rated male dates, willingness to protect was very attractive, whereas failure to do so—stepping away—was a deal-breaker (the attractive of unwilling to protect men plummeted compared to when no information about willingness or unwillingness to protect was given).”</p>
<p>The researchers also explored the role of physical strength. While women did express a preference for stronger men, a mediation analysis clarified the underlying psychological mechanism. The analysis suggested that women tended to infer that stronger men would be more willing to protect them. </p>
<p>Once this inference of willingness was statistically controlled, physical strength itself had a much smaller independent effect on attraction. This indicates that strength is attractive largely because it signals a higher probability of protective behavior.</p>
<p>Subsequent experiments tested the limits of this preference by manipulating the outcome of the confrontation. The researchers introduced scenarios where the partner attempts to intervene but is overpowered and pushed to the ground. Surprisingly, the data showed that a partner who tries to help but fails is still viewed as highly attractive. The attempt itself appeared to be the primary driver of the positive rating, rather than the successful neutralization of the threat.</p>
<p>A final experiment examined the most extreme scenario where the partner fails to stop the attack and the participant is physically harmed. In this condition, the aggressor strikes the participant after the partner’s failed intervention. </p>
<p>Even in cases where the participant suffered physical harm because the partner failed, the partner remained significantly more attractive than one who was unwilling to act. This suggests that the signal of commitment inherent in the act of defense carries more weight in partner evaluation than the immediate physical outcome.</p>
<p>The study also compared preferences for friends versus romantic partners. While willingness to protect was valued in both categories, the standards for friends were generally more relaxed. The penalty for being unwilling to protect was nearly three times more severe for romantic partners than for friends. This difference implies that while protection is a valued attribute in all close alliances, it is considered a more critical requirement for long-term mates.</p>
<p>“Strength—or more generally, ability to protect—mattered only little, much less than we thought it would,” Barlev explained. “In our earlier experiments, women showed a weak preference for strength in male dates, but most of this had to do with the underlying inference that stronger men would be more willing—rather than more able—to protect them. In fact, in our later experiments, women found dates attractive even if they tried to protect but failed, and such dates were not less attractive than dated who tried to protect and succeeded.” </p>
<p>“That’s surprising, because whether you protect someone is a function of both your willingness and ability to do so. But here’s one way to think about this: If the aggressor is a rational decision-maker, his decision of whether to fight or retreat depends not only on his strength relative to yours but also on how much each side is willing to risk. So, he should not attack you even if you are weaker if you show that you are willing to risk a lot. Meaning, potentially even more important than how strong you are is your readiness to step up and fight when it’s needed.”</p>
<p>As with all research, there are some limitations to keep in mind. The study relied on hypothetical vignettes rather than real-world behavioral observations. While imagined scenarios allow for precise control over variables, they may not perfectly capture how individuals react during actual violent encounters. Participants might overestimate or underestimate their emotional reactions to such visceral events when reading about them on a screen.</p>
<p>Additionally, the sample consisted entirely of participants from the United States. This geographic focus means the results reflect preferences in a modern Western society where rates of interpersonal violence are historically low compared to ancestral environments. It remains to be seen whether these preferences would differ in cultures with higher rates of daily violence. Preferences for physical strength might be more pronounced in environments where physical safety is less assured by external institutions.</p>
<p>“One big next step is to ask how preferences for physical strength and willingness to protect vary across societies,” Barlev told PsyPost. “Both preferences are likely tuned to some extent to the social and physical environment in which people live, such as how dangerous it is. Strength in particular can be an asset or a liability—strong individuals, especially men, would be better able to protect themselves and others from violence, but such men might also be more violent toward their romantic partners and friends.”</p>
<p>“Because most of our American participants live in relatively safe environments, their weaker preference for strength may partially reflect this down-regulation. If that’s right, we’d predict that people in more dangerous environments will value both strength and willingness to protect somewhat more.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106745" target="_blank">Willingness to protect from violence, independent of strength, guides partner choice</a>,” was authored by Michael Barlev, Sakura Arai, John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/why-scientists-are-linking-mitochondria-to-the-physical-toll-of-loneliness/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Why scientists are linking mitochondria to the physical toll of loneliness</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 21st 2025, 20:00</div>
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<p><p>Chronic stress and social isolation are frequently cited as precursors to physical illness, yet the biological machinery driving this connection has remained partially obscured. A new scientific review proposes that mitochondria, the energy-generating structures within cells, serve as the primary translator between psychological experience and physical health. By altering their function in response to stress, these cellular components may drive conditions ranging from depression to cardiovascular disease. The paper detailing these connections was published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214251380214" target="_blank">Current Directions in Psychological Science</a></em>.</p>
<p>For decades, researchers have utilized the biopsychosocial model to understand how social and psychological factors influence the body. This framework links biological processes with social environments, yet it has historically lacked specific details on how feelings physically alter cells. Critics of the model note that it offers limited mechanistic specificity regarding how an experience like loneliness translates into molecular change. Without identifying the precise biological pathways, it is difficult to predict or treat stress-related diseases effectively.</p>
<p>To address this gap, a team of researchers synthesized evidence linking cellular biology with psychology. Christopher P. Fagundes, a professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences at Rice University, led the review. He collaborated with E. Lydia Wu-Chung from the University of Pittsburgh and Cobi J. Heijnen from Rice University. They sought to identify a cellular system sensitive enough to respond to mood but powerful enough to regulate whole-body health.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted their review by examining existing literature from the fields of psychoneuroimmunology and mitochondrial biology. They analyzed data from preclinical animal models and human studies to construct a clearer picture of cellular adaptation. Their analysis focused on how mitochondria function as a hub for stress physiology, immune regulation, and energy balance.</p>
<p>Mitochondria are often called the powerhouses of the cell because they generate adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. This molecule fuels nearly all biological activity, including brain function and muscle movement. The review highlights that these structures do much more than produce fuel.</p>
<p>They serve as sophisticated sensors that detect hormonal signals and environmental shifts. Mitochondria possess the ability to adjust their activity based on the body’s immediate needs. This adaptability is known as metabolic flexibility.</p>
<p>During moments of acute stress, the body releases hormones like cortisol and catecholamines. These hormones prompt mitochondria to increase energy production to handle the immediate challenge. This rapid adjustment supports resilience by providing the resources needed for a “fight or flight” response.</p>
<p>However, the authors note that chronic stress creates a vastly different outcome. Prolonged exposure to stress hormones causes mitochondrial efficiency to plummet. Instead of adapting, the machinery begins to malfunction.</p>
<p>When these structures become overworked, they produce excess reactive oxygen species. These are volatile by-products that function like cellular exhaust fumes. While small amounts are necessary for signaling, an accumulation leads to oxidative stress.</p>
<p>This damage disrupts the balance of energy and leads to cellular dysfunction. The researchers point to this breakdown as a potential root cause of fatigue and cognitive decline. The brain is particularly susceptible to these energy deficits because of its immense fuel requirements.</p>
<p>Even slight mitochondrial impairments can limit the energy available for neurotransmission. This can undermine the neural processes that support mood regulation and memory. Consequently, mitochondrial dysfunction is increasingly linked to psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression.</p>
<p>The review also details how mitochondria communicate with the immune system. When mitochondria sustain damage, they can release fragments of their own DNA into the bloodstream. They may also release other internal molecules that are usually contained within the cell.</p>
<p>The immune system perceives these fragments as danger signals. This triggers an inflammatory response similar to how the body reacts to a virus. Chronic inflammation is a well-established risk factor for heart disease, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.</p>
<p>This pathway suggests that psychological stress creates physical inflammation through mitochondrial damage. Fagundes and his colleagues cite studies involving human subjects to illustrate this connection. One highlighted area of research involves caregivers for family members with dementia.</p>
<p>Caregiving is often used as a model for chronic psychological stress. Research indicates that caregivers often display lower mitochondrial health indices compared to non-caregivers. Those with lower mitochondrial efficiency reported worse physical functioning.</p>
<p>Conversely, caregivers with higher mitochondrial capacity appeared more resilient. They were better buffered against the negative emotional effects of their heavy burden. This suggests that cellular health may dictate how well a person withstands psychological pressure.</p>
<p>Social isolation also appears to leave a biological mark on these cellular structures. The review mentions that individuals reporting high levels of loneliness possess lower levels of specific mitochondrial proteins in the brain. This creates a feedback loop where social disconnection degrades physical health.</p>
<p>Fagundes notes the importance of this cellular perspective in understanding disease. He states, “The actual cellular machinery that links these experiences to disease really starts at the level of the mitochondria.” This insight moves the field beyond vague associations to concrete mechanisms.</p>
<p>The authors argue that this helps explain the overlap between mental health disorders and physical ailments. Conditions like anxiety and diabetes may share this common cellular origin. It provides a unified theory for why emotional distress so often accompanies physical illness.</p>
<p>The team also reviewed interventions that might restore mitochondrial health. Exercise provided the most consistent results in the analyzed literature. Endurance training boosts the number of mitochondria and improves their efficiency.</p>
<p>Physical activity stimulates a process called mitochondrial biogenesis. This creates new power plants within the cell to replace old or damaged ones. The authors suggest this is a primary reason why exercise supports both physical and psychological resilience.</p>
<p>Mindfulness and psychotherapy showed potential but lacked robust evidence in the current literature. Some studies indicated biological changes following these interventions. For example, a mindfulness program was associated with altered oxidative metabolism markers.</p>
<p>However, these biological shifts did not always align with reported symptom improvement. In some cases, the studies lacked necessary control groups to confirm causality. The researchers characterize these findings as promising proof of concept rather than definitive proof.</p>
<p>Social support is another theorized intervention. It is believed to protect mitochondrial health by reducing cortisol and dampening inflammatory activity. However, the authors note that very few studies have measured mitochondrial outcomes directly in relation to social support.</p>
<p>The authors acknowledge that much of the current evidence relies on correlations. It remains unclear if mitochondrial dysfunction causes psychological distress or if distress drives the dysfunction. There is likely a bidirectional relationship that exacerbates over time.</p>
<p>Most human studies reviewed were cross-sectional, meaning they looked at a single point in time. This limits the ability to determine the direction of the effect. The researchers emphasize the need for longitudinal designs to clarify these pathways.</p>
<p>Future work must integrate mitochondrial measures with broader systems. These include the immune system, the autonomic nervous system, and the brain. Studying these systems in isolation often misses the complexity of the human stress response.</p>
<p>The authors also call for standardized ways to measure mitochondrial health in psychological studies. Current methods vary widely in cost and accessibility. Developing consistent biomarkers will allow for larger studies that reflect diverse populations.</p>
<p>Fagundes emphasizes the potential of this approach for future medicine. He says, “If we focus more at the cellular level, we’ll have a much deeper understanding of underlying processes.” This could lead to new treatments that target the cell to heal the mind.</p>
<p>By establishing mitochondria as a key player, this review refines the biopsychosocial model. It offers a testable biological mechanism for decades of psychological theory. Ultimately, it suggests that resilience is not just a state of mind but a state of cellular energy.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214251380214" target="_blank">Psychological Science at the Cellular Level: Mitochondria’s Role in Health and Behavior</a>,” was authored by Christopher P. Fagundes, E. Lydia Wu-Chung, and Cobi J. Heijnen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/antibiotic-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-slightly-increased-risk-of-adhd/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Antibiotic use during pregnancy linked to slightly increased risk of ADHD</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 21st 2025, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>A new comprehensive analysis suggests that maternal use of antibiotics during pregnancy is associated with a slightly elevated likelihood of the child receiving a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The research indicates that this statistical link is stronger when antibiotics are administered during the second or third trimesters. These findings were published recently in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120168" target="_blank">Journal of Affective Disorders</a></em>.</p>
<p>ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition that has become increasingly common in recent years. It is characterized by symptoms such as difficulty sustaining attention, impulsive actions, and hyperactivity. While genetics play a major role in the development of the disorder, scientists believe that environmental factors also contribute. Researchers have increasingly focused on exposures that occur before birth.</p>
<p>Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications for pregnant women. They are essential for treating bacterial infections that could otherwise harm the mother or the fetus. However, these drugs do not only target harmful bacteria. They also affect the vast community of helpful microbes living in the human gut, known as the microbiota.</p>
<p>There is a growing body of evidence suggesting a connection between the gut and the brain. This concept is often referred to as the gut-brain axis. The theory posits that the composition of gut bacteria can influence brain development and function. This influence may occur through various biological pathways, such as the production of neurotransmitters or the regulation of inflammation.</p>
<p>Mothers pass aspects of their microbiota to their children. Additionally, the environment within the womb influences the initial development of the fetus’s own biological systems. Consequently, some scientists hypothesize that disrupting the maternal microbiome with antibiotics could have downstream effects on the child’s neurodevelopment. Previous studies on this topic have produced conflicting results, with some finding a risk and others finding none.</p>
<p>To address these inconsistencies, a research team led by Jiali Fan from West China Second University Hospital at Sichuan University initiated a new investigation. They sought to clarify the potential relationship by combining data from many different sources. This approach allows for a more robust statistical analysis than any single study could provide on its own.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a meta-analysis. This is a scientific method that pools statistical data from multiple independent studies to identify broader trends. The team searched major medical databases for observational cohort studies published up to October 2024. They followed strict guidelines to select high-quality research.</p>
<p>The final analysis included nine major studies. These studies represented a massive combined pool of participants, totaling more than 6.1 million mother-child pairs. The data encompassed populations from several different regions. These included countries in North America, Europe, and Asia.</p>
<p>The researchers used a scoring system called the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale to evaluate the quality of the included research. This scale assesses how well a study selected its participants and how accurately it measured outcomes. The team found that the included studies were generally of moderate to high methodological quality.</p>
<p>The primary finding of the analysis identified a positive association. The overall data showed that children exposed to antibiotics in the womb had a hazard ratio of 1.15 compared to those who were not exposed. This figure represents a 15 percent increase in the relative risk of developing ADHD. Another statistical measure used in the study, the odds ratio, placed this increased likelihood at 28 percent.</p>
<p>The researchers then broke down the data to see if the timing of the exposure mattered. Pregnancy is divided into three distinct periods known as trimesters. The analysis found no statistical connection between antibiotic use in the first trimester and a later ADHD diagnosis. This lack of association in early pregnancy was consistent across the data.</p>
<p>However, a different pattern emerged for the later stages of pregnancy. The study identified a link when antibiotics were used during the mid-pregnancy period. A similar association was observed for antibiotic use during late pregnancy. This suggests that the timing of exposure may be a relevant factor in this potential relationship.</p>
<p>In addition to timing, the team investigated the frequency of antibiotic use. They wanted to know if taking more courses of medication changed the risk profile. The data showed that a single course of antibiotics was not statistically linked to an increased risk of ADHD. The association only became apparent with repeated use.</p>
<p>When mothers received two separate courses of antibiotics, the risk of their children developing ADHD rose. The risk appeared to increase further for those who received three or more courses. This finding hints at a potential cumulative effect. It suggests that more frequent disruptions to the maternal microbiome might correspond to a higher probability of the neurodevelopmental outcome.</p>
<p>The researchers performed sensitivity analyses to test the strength of their conclusions. This process involves removing one study at a time from the calculations to ensure no single dataset is skewing the results. The findings remained stable throughout this process. This consistency suggests that the observed link is robust across the different study populations included.</p>
<p>Despite these findings, the authors emphasize that the results must be interpreted with caution. The study design is observational. This means it can detect a correlation between two events, but it cannot prove that one caused the other. There are other factors that could explain the association.</p>
<p>The most prominent alternative explanation is the underlying infection itself. Women are prescribed antibiotics because they are sick. Infections trigger immune responses and inflammation in the body. It is possible that the maternal fever or inflammation affects fetal brain development, rather than the medication.</p>
<p>Some of the studies included in the analysis attempted to adjust for this factor. For instance, one study accounted for maternal infection and still found a link to the medication. However, not all studies could fully separate the effects of the illness from the effects of the cure. This remains a primary challenge in this field of research.</p>
<p>Another limitation of the analysis is the lack of detail regarding specific drugs. Antibiotics are a diverse class of medications. Different types of antibiotics target bacteria in different ways and have varying effects on the microbiome. The current data did not allow the researchers to determine if specific classes of drugs carried higher risks than others.</p>
<p>The study also lacked precise information on dosages. Without knowing the exact amount of medication taken, it is difficult to determine a precise biological threshold for risk. The researchers relied on prescription records and medical files. These records confirm a prescription was filled but do not always guarantee it was taken as directed.</p>
<p>The biological mechanisms remain theoretical. While animal studies have shown that antibiotics can alter behavior in mice by changing gut bacteria, this has not been definitively proven in humans. The pathway from maternal gut bacteria to fetal brain development is a subject of ongoing scientific inquiry.</p>
<p>The authors recommend that future research should be prospective in nature. This means designing studies that recruit pregnant women and follow them forward in time. Such studies should meticulously record the specific type, dosage, and duration of antibiotic use. This would allow for a much finer-grained analysis of the risks.</p>
<p>The researchers also suggest using advanced study designs to rule out genetic factors. Sibling comparisons can be a powerful tool. By comparing one sibling who was exposed to antibiotics to another who was not, scientists can control for shared genetics and household environments. This would help isolate the effect of the medication.</p>
<p>In clinical practice, antibiotics remain vital tools. The risks of leaving a bacterial infection untreated during pregnancy are well-documented and can be severe. The authors state that their findings should not discourage necessary treatment. Instead, they suggest the results highlight the need for prudent prescribing.</p>
<p>Physicians should continue to weigh the benefits and risks. The study supports the idea that antibiotics should be used only when clearly indicated. Avoiding unnecessary or repeated courses of these drugs may be beneficial. This aligns with general medical guidance regarding antibiotic stewardship.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120168" target="_blank">Meta-analysis of the association between prenatal antibiotic exposure and risk of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder</a>,” was authored by Jiali Fan, Shanshan Wu, Chengshuang Huang, Dongqiong Xiao, and Fajuan Tang.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/social-media-surveillance-of-ex-partners-linked-to-worse-breakup-recovery/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Social media surveillance of ex-partners linked to worse breakup recovery</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 21st 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>A new series of studies published in <em>Computers in Human Behavior</em> has found that keeping tabs on a former romantic partner through social media hinders emotional recovery. The findings indicate that both intentional surveillance and accidental exposure to an ex-partner’s content are associated with increased distress, jealousy, and negative mood.</p>
<p>Tara C. Marshall, an associate professor at McMaster University, conducted this research to understand the psychological aftermath of maintaining digital connections with former partners. While social media platforms allow users to maintain contact with friends and family, they also create an archive of information about past relationships. Marshall sought to clarify whether observing an ex-partner actively or passively leads to worse recovery outcomes over time. </p>
<p>Previous research on this topic often relied on data collected at a single point in time, which makes it difficult to determine if social media use causes emotional distress or if distressed individuals simply use social media more often. By examining the timing of these behaviors, the study intends to determine if observing an ex-partner precedes a decline in well-being. The research also explores whether personality traits like attachment anxiety, characterized by a fear of rejection and a desire for extreme closeness, worsen these effects.</p>
<p>Marshall conducted four separate studies to address these questions using different methodologies. The first study employed a longitudinal design to assess changes over time. Marshall recruited 194 adults through Amazon Mechanical Turk who had experienced a romantic breakup within the previous three months. </p>
<p>To be included, participants had to be registered Facebook users who had viewed their ex-partner’s profile at least once. Participants completed an initial survey measuring their attachment style, active Facebook surveillance, and current levels of distress. Six months later, they completed the same measures.</p>
<p>The results from the first study showed that frequent monitoring of an ex-partner’s Facebook page was associated with higher levels of distress and jealousy at both the beginning of the study and six months later. While feelings of distress generally declined over time for most participants, active observation moderated the change in negative affect. </p>
<p>Specifically, individuals who engaged in high levels of surveillance saw their negative mood increase over the six-month period. The data also revealed that the link between active observation and breakup distress was stronger for people with high attachment anxiety. This suggests that for individuals who already fear abandonment, seeing reminders of an ex-partner online is particularly painful.</p>
<p>To better understand the immediate emotional impact of social media exposure, Marshall conducted a second study using an experimental design. This study involved 407 adults recruited from the United States who had experienced a breakup within the last year. </p>
<p>Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. One group was instructed to imagine looking at their ex-partner’s Facebook profile, including photos and relationship status. A second group imagined looking at an acquaintance’s Facebook profile. The third group imagined their ex-partner in a school or workplace setting, without any social media context.</p>
<p>The experiment revealed that participants who visualized their ex-partner’s Facebook page reported significantly higher levels of jealousy compared to those who imagined an acquaintance or the ex-partner in a real-world setting. </p>
<p>This increased jealousy was statistically linked to higher levels of negative affect and breakup distress. The findings indicate that there is something uniquely triggering about social media observation. It is not simply thinking about the ex-partner that causes jealousy, but rather the specific context of social media, which often displays personal information and interactions with potential new romantic rivals.</p>
<p>The third study utilized a daily diary method to capture real-time fluctuations in mood and behavior. Marshall recruited 77 undergraduate students in the United Kingdom who had gone through a breakup in the last two years. For seven consecutive days, participants completed a survey every night before bed. They reported whether they had engaged in active observation, defined as deliberately searching for their ex-partner’s profile, or passive observation, defined as the ex-partner’s posts appearing in their feed without a search. They also rated their daily negative emotions and specific distress regarding the breakup.</p>
<p>This daily tracking provided evidence for the timing of these emotional shifts. On days when participants passively observed their ex-partner on platforms like Facebook, Instagram, or Snapchat, they reported higher negative affect for that same day. This suggests that even unintentional exposure can dampen one’s mood. When participants engaged in active observation, the consequences appeared more severe. </p>
<p>Active searching was associated with higher breakup distress on the same day and predicted higher distress on the following day. This finding supports the idea that surveillance does not just reflect current pain but contributes to future pain.</p>
<p>To replicate and expand upon these findings, Marshall conducted a fourth study with a sample of 84 undergraduate students from a Canadian university. The procedure mirrored the third study but extended the diary period to ten days and included newer platforms such as TikTok and VSCO. This study also included daily measures of jealousy to see how they fluctuated with social media use.</p>
<p>The results of the fourth study aligned with the previous findings. On days when participants engaged in active observation, they reported greater negative affect, breakup distress, and jealousy. Similar to the third study, active observation predicted greater breakup distress on the next day. </p>
<p>The study also found that attachment anxiety played a significant role in daily reactions. For participants with high attachment anxiety, both active and passive observation were significantly associated with feelings of jealousy. This reinforces the conclusion that anxious individuals are more vulnerable to the negative effects of digital exposure to an ex-partner.</p>
<p>The collective findings across all four studies present a consistent pattern. Observing an ex-partner on social media tends to be associated with poorer recovery from a breakup. This relationship holds true across different countries and platforms. </p>
<p>The research highlights that passive observation is not harmless. Simply remaining friends with an ex-partner or following them allows their content to infiltrate one’s feed, which is linked to daily spikes in negative emotion. Active surveillance appears to be more detrimental, as it predicts lingering distress that carries over into subsequent days.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this research that should be noted. The samples were drawn primarily from Western nations, and the latter two studies relied exclusively on university students. This demographic profile may not represent the experiences of older adults or individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Additionally, the measure for passive observation in the diary studies relied on self-reporting, which is subject to memory errors. Participants may not always recall every instance of passive exposure throughout the day.</p>
<p>Future research could address these gaps by recruiting more diverse samples. It would also be beneficial to investigate whether these patterns hold true for other types of relationship dissolution, such as the end of a close friendship or family estrangement. Another potential avenue for investigation would be an intervention study. Researchers could randomly assign participants to block or unfollow an ex-partner and measure whether this disconnection leads to faster emotional recovery compared to those who maintain digital ties.</p>
<p>The study, “Social Media Observation of Ex-Partners is Associated with Greater Breakup Distress, Negative Affect, and Jealousy,” was authored by Tara C. Marshall.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/community-gardens-function-as-essential-social-infrastructure-analysis-suggests/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Community gardens function as essential social infrastructure, analysis suggests</a>
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<p><p>A new review published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102149" target="_blank">Current Opinion in Psychology</a></em> suggests that community gardens function as vital social infrastructure that contributes significantly to individual and collective health. The analysis indicates that these shared green spaces foster psychological well-being, strengthen social connections, and promote civic engagement by cultivating specific forms of social capital.</p>
<p>Many modern societies are currently experiencing a period of transformation defined by profound challenges. These challenges include widespread social isolation, political polarization, and a decline in public trust. While community gardens are frequently established to improve neighborhood aesthetics or provide fresh food, the authors of this study argue that these goals often obscure a more profound impact. </p>
<p>The researchers sought to bridge the gap between the practical experience of garden-based community building and the theoretical understanding of how these bonds are formed. They aimed to provide a comprehensive explanation for how shared gardening activities transform into community resilience.</p>
<p>“Community gardens are often praised for producing food or beautifying neighborhoods, but those explanations felt incomplete. In my real-world experience with the Community Ecology Institute and beyond, gardens consistently function as places where trust, cooperation, and a sense of shared responsibility emerge—often among people who might not otherwise connect,” said first author <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/chiaradamore/" target="_blank">Chiara D’Amore</a>, the executive director of <a href="https://www.communityecologyinstitute.org/" target="_blank">the Community Ecology Institute</a>.</p>
<p>“At the same time, much of the research treated these outcomes as secondary or incidental. This study was motivated by a gap between practice and theory: we lacked a clear psychological explanation for how community gardens build social capital and why those relationships matter for individual and community well-being. The article brings together psychological theory and on-the-ground evidence to make those mechanisms more visible and legible.”</p>
<p>The authors synthesize findings from 50 studies published over the past decade to examine the social benefits of community gardens. They frame their analysis using social capital theory, specifically the framework established by Aldrich and Meyer. This framework identifies three distinct types of social capital that enable communities to engage in cooperative behavior. These are bonding social capital, bridging social capital, and linking social capital.</p>
<p>Bonding social capital refers to the strong ties that develop within a specific group. Bridging social capital describes the connections formed between diverse groups who might not otherwise interact. Linking social capital involves relationships between individuals and larger institutions or those in positions of power. The review suggests that community gardens are uniquely positioned to foster all three types because they are intentionally designed for people to gather and share resources.</p>
<p>Community gardening is consistently associated with enhanced psychological well-being across diverse populations. These benefits often stem from what the authors term the “gardening triad.” This triad consists of caretaking, a sense of accomplishment, and a connection to nature.</p>
<p>For children, the garden environment appears to stimulate curiosity and joy. These experiences tend to foster emotional development and learning. Adults frequently report reduced feelings of loneliness and an increased sense of purpose. Participants also describe elevated levels of happiness and self-esteem.</p>
<p>Community gardens often serve as places of refuge and restoration. Participants frequently describe these spaces as locations where they can experience safety and mental clarity. The act of being in the garden allows for a break from the stressors of daily life.</p>
<p>For immigrant, refugee, and Indigenous communities, these gardens can function as sites of cultural refuge. They allow for the healing affirmation of identity and the preservation of traditions. During collective crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, gardens offered a sense of continuity. They provided emotional grounding when other social structures were disrupted.</p>
<p>The process of gardening also promotes a sense of agency and pride. This occurs through the rhythms of plant care and participation in the food system. These experiences tend to increase self-esteem and motivation. This is particularly true in underserved contexts where individuals may face systemic barriers.</p>
<p>In the Global South, the review notes that community gardens have enabled marginalized groups to reclaim land. This process fosters a sense of control over personal health. Participants describe heightened belonging and self-worth as they see the tangible results of their labor.</p>
<p>The review also highlights evidence that community gardens significantly enhance social connectedness. The shared nature of the work cultivates repeated and cooperative interactions. These interactions nurture trust and reciprocity among neighbors.</p>
<p>One of the primary ways this occurs is through social learning. Gardens enable mentorship and the transmission of knowledge between generations. Older adults are able to pass down cultural and ecological wisdom to younger participants.</p>
<p>For youth, gardening often leads to stronger relationships with peers. It also fosters informal mentorships with adults in the community. School and campus gardens facilitate bridging social capital by linking students with families and educators.</p>
<p>The inclusive nature of these spaces helps to reduce social isolation. This is particularly relevant for urban residents and the elderly. Gardens create environments where individuals from diverse backgrounds can interact.</p>
<p>These interactions foster intercultural trust and dialogue. By working toward a common goal, participants bridge demographic differences. This helps to reduce prejudice and strengthens the overall social fabric of the neighborhood.</p>
<p>The review also highlights the role of community gardens in fostering civic engagement. The authors argue that these spaces act as sites for empathic growth and civic formation. This is especially observed among students and marginalized populations.</p>
<p>Engaging in local food systems tends to promote a grounded sense of social responsibility. It exposes participants to issues regarding sustainability and environmental justice. Students involved in these programs frequently report increased empathy toward underserved communities.</p>
<p>Gardens can also operate as spaces for grassroots leadership. Participants often assume roles in governance or advocacy. This generates linking social capital by connecting residents to policy networks and civic institutions.</p>
<p>Gardening might also deepen the connection participants feel to ecological systems, leading to a stronger environmental identity. Individuals are more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors outside of the garden context.</p>
<p>During the COVID-19 pandemic, community gardens demonstrated their capacity as resilient civic infrastructure. They provided food and sustained mutual aid networks. This highlighted their role in both immediate relief and long-term systemic resilience.</p>
<p>“Community gardens don’t just grow food—they grow connection,” D’Amore told PsyPost. “When people work side by side caring for shared land, they build trust, belonging, and mutual support in ways that are difficult to replicate through other programs or policies. These relationships help communities become healthier, more resilient, and better able to face challenges together. The takeaway is simple but powerful: investing in shared, place-based activities like community gardening is an effective way to rebuild social ties at a time when many people feel increasingly isolated.”</p>
<p>Despite the positive findings, the authors acknowledge several limitations in the current body of research. They note that more rigorous data collection is needed to fully understand the scope of these benefits. Future research would benefit from a combination of pre- and post-surveys alongside direct observation.</p>
<p>There is a need to examine how intersecting identities influence access to these spaces. Factors such as race, class, gender, and immigration status likely shape the gardening experience. Comparative studies across different geographic contexts could reveal important variations in outcomes.</p>
<p>The specific mechanisms that cultivate different forms of social capital also require further clarification. It is not yet fully understood which specific activities or leadership styles are most effective at building trust. Understanding these nuances is necessary for optimizing the design of future programs.</p>
<p>The authors also point out the need to explore barriers to garden establishment. Issues such as access to space and funding present significant challenges. Identifying strategies to overcome these obstacles is necessary for creating equitable opportunities for all communities.</p>
<p>The authors conclude that community gardens are a vital form of social infrastructure. They argue that the value of these spaces lies not only in the produce they grow but in the networks they nourish. They encourage continued investment in community gardens as a strategy to address both individual well-being and community resilience.</p>
<p>“As the Founder and Director of the Community Ecology Institute it is our goal to continue to cultivate community garden spaces in our community in Howard County, Maryland and to create tools and resources that help other communities do the same in ways that are connected to research based best practices,” D’Amore added.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102149" target="_blank">Community Gardens and the Cultivation of Social Capital</a>,” was authored by Chiara D’Amore, Loni Cohen, Justin Chen, Paige Owen, and Calvin Ball.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/subtle-physical-traits-may-hint-at-the-biological-roots-of-gender-dysphoria/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Subtle physical traits may hint at the biological roots of gender dysphoria</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 21st 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>Researchers in Turkey have identified a potential biological link between early fetal development and the later emergence of gender dysphoria. The study indicates that adults diagnosed with gender dysphoria possess a higher frequency of subtle physical irregularities, known as minor physical anomalies, compared to cisgender individuals. </p>
<p>These physical traits develop during the initial stages of pregnancy and may serve as external markers for variations in brain development that occur during the same prenatal window. The research findings appear in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2555930" target="_blank">Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy</a></em>.</p>
<p>The origins of gender dysphoria remain a subject of persistent scientific inquiry. Current theoretical models often divide potential causes into biological influences and psychosocial factors. A growing subset of neuroscience research examines whether the condition arises from variations in how the brain develops before birth. This perspective suggests that the biological pathways shaping the brain might also leave physical traces elsewhere on the body. This concept relies on the biological reality of fetal development.</p>
<p>During the early weeks of gestation, the human embryo consists of distinct tissue layers. One of these layers, the ectoderm, eventually differentiates to form both the skin and the central nervous system. Because these systems share a common embryological origin, disruptions or variations affecting one system often impact the other. Scientists have previously utilized this connection to study conditions such as schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. The presence of minute physical irregularities is often interpreted as a record of developmental stability in the womb.</p>
<p>These irregularities are classified as minor physical anomalies. They are slight deviations in morphology that do not cause medical problems or cosmetic concerns. Examples include low-set ears, specific hair whorl patterns, or a high arch in the palate. These features form primarily during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. This timeframe overlaps with critical periods of fetal brain architecture formation. By quantifying these traits, researchers attempt to estimate the degree of neurodevelopmental deviation that occurred prior to birth.</p>
<p>Psychiatrist Yasin Kavla and his colleagues at Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa sought to apply this framework to the study of gender identity. They reasoned that if gender dysphoria has a neurodevelopmental basis, individuals with the diagnosis might exhibit these physical markers at higher rates than the general population. The team designed a case-control study to test this hypothesis. They aimed to determine if there is a measurable difference in the prevalence of these anomalies between transgender and cisgender adults.</p>
<p>The investigators recruited 108 adults diagnosed with gender dysphoria. These participants were patients at a university clinic who had not yet undergone hormonal or surgical gender-affirming treatments. The exclusion of individuals on hormone therapy was necessary to ensure that any observed physical traits were congenital rather than acquired. The group included 60 individuals assigned female at birth and 48 assigned male at birth. Most participants in this group reported experiencing gender dysphoria since early childhood.</p>
<p>For comparison, the researchers recruited a control group of 117 cisgender individuals. This group consisted of people who sought administrative health documents from the hospital. The control group included 60 females and 57 males who reported attraction to the opposite sex. The researchers implemented strict exclusion criteria for the control group. They removed any potential candidates who had a personal or family history of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.</p>
<p>Two psychiatrists examined each participant using the Waldrop Minor Physical Anomaly Scale. This assessment tool is a standardized method for evaluating 18 specific physical features across six body regions. The regions include the head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet. To ensure objectivity, the examiners used precise tools like calipers and tape measures for items requiring specific dimensions. They looked for specific signs such as a curved fifth finger, a gap between the first and second toes, or asymmetrical ears.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed distinct differences between the groups regarding the total number of anomalies. Individuals diagnosed with gender dysphoria had higher total scores for physical anomalies compared to the cisgender control group. This trend held true for both those assigned female at birth and those assigned male at birth. The data suggests a generalized increase in these developmental markers among the transgender participants. The researchers then broke down the data by specific body regions to identify patterns.</p>
<p>The disparity was most evident in the craniofacial region. This area includes the head, eyes, ears, and mouth. Both groups of transgender participants showed elevated scores in this region relative to the cisgender participants. Specific anomalies appeared more frequently in the gender dysphoria group. These included a furrowed tongue and skin folds covering the inner corner of the eye, known as epicanthus. The study notes that the face and brain exert reciprocal influences on each other during early embryogenesis.</p>
<p>The researchers also examined peripheral anomalies located on the hands and feet. Participants assigned female at birth showed higher scores in this category than both cisgender males and females. The results for participants assigned male at birth were more nuanced. Their peripheral scores were not statistically distinct from cisgender males. However, their scores were higher than those of the cisgender female control group. This suggests that the distribution of these traits may vary based on biological sex as well as gender identity.</p>
<p>Another measurement taken was head circumference. The study found that individuals assigned male at birth had larger head circumferences than those assigned female at birth, regardless of gender identity. There was no statistical difference in head size between cisgender males and transgender women. Similarly, there was no statistical difference between cisgender females and transgender men. This specific metric appeared to align with biological sex rather than gender identity or developmental instability.</p>
<p>The authors interpret these findings as support for a neurodevelopmental etiology of gender dysphoria. They propose that genetic and environmental factors in the womb likely drive the observed patterns. The presence of craniofacial anomalies specifically points to developmental variations occurring in the first two trimesters. This timing aligns with the period when the brain undergoes sexual differentiation. The findings challenge the notion that gender dysphoria is purely a psychosocial phenomenon.</p>
<p>However, the authors note several limitations that contextualize their results. The control group excluded anyone with a history of neurodevelopmental disorders. This exclusion might have artificially lowered the average anomaly score for the cisgender group. A control group including such histories might have produced different comparisons. Comparing the gender dysphoria group to a clinical psychiatric control group would clarify if these high scores are unique to gender dysphoria.</p>
<p>Additionally, the examiners could not be fully blinded to the participants’ gender presentation. This visibility might have introduced unconscious bias during the physical measurements. The study population also came from a single tertiary care center in Turkey. This sample may not represent the global diversity of gender-diverse individuals. Cultural and genetic background can influence the baseline prevalence of certain minor physical anomalies.</p>
<p>Sexual orientation represents another variable to consider. The majority of the transgender participants in the study were attracted to their same biological sex. The cisgender control group consisted entirely of heterosexual individuals. Future investigations would benefit from including cisgender control groups with same-sex attractions. This would help researchers isolate gender identity from sexual orientation as the primary variable.</p>
<p>The study concludes that minor physical anomalies are more prevalent in this specific cohort of individuals with gender dysphoria. This suggests that the biological roots of the condition may lie in early prenatal development. The authors emphasize that these anomalies are likely markers of underlying genetic or epigenetic processes. They call for future research to integrate genetic analysis to map the specific pathways involved.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2555930" target="_blank">Minor Physical Anomalies as a Gateway to Understanding the Neurodevelopmental Roots of Gender Dysphoria</a>,” was authored by Yasin Kavla, Tuncay Sandıkçı, and Şenol Turan.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/smoking-cannabis-reduces-alcohol-consumption-in-heavy-drinkers-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Smoking cannabis reduces alcohol consumption in heavy drinkers, study finds</a>
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<p><p>An experimental study of heavy drinkers found that smoking cannabis with 7.2% THC reduced their alcohol urge immediately after smoking. These participants consumed 27% less alcohol after smoking, while those smoking cannabis with 3.1% THC consumed 19% less alcohol. The research was published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20250115"><em>American Journal of Psychiatry</em></a>.</p>
<p>Cannabis is a psychoactive plant that contains chemical compounds called cannabinoids. The most well-known cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is primarily responsible for the intoxicating effects, while CBD has non-intoxicating properties. CBD is studied for potential therapeutic uses.</p>
<p>Cannabis can be consumed by smoking, vaporizing, or ingesting extracts and edibles. The effects vary widely based on dose, potency, and individual sensitivity. Cannabis use leads to short-term changes in attention, memory, and coordination. In some individuals, it can trigger anxiety or paranoia. Long-term heavy use tends to lead to dependence, impaired cognitive functioning, or exacerbation of mental health conditions, particularly in vulnerable populations.</p>
<p>Some individuals use cannabis and alcohol together, but co-use can amplify impairment more than either drug alone. Alcohol is generally more often used as it is more socially accepted and is also legal in most jurisdictions. In contrast, cannabis is illegal in many countries around the world and more heavily stigmatized. However, the number of jurisdictions legalizing the use of cannabis is increasing.</p>
<p>Study author Jane Metrik and her colleagues wanted to explore how the consumption of cannabis affects cravings for alcohol and subsequent alcohol consumption. These authors note that results of previous studies on this are inconclusive. While some studies indicated that cannabis use might hinder alcohol dependence treatment and reduce abstinence, other studies reported no effects or even reduced consumption of alcohol after cannabis use.</p>
<p>The study randomized 157 individuals recruited from the community who endorsed the use of alcohol and cannabis; 138 participants completed at least two sessions and were included in the final analysis. Participants were required to be English speakers between 21 and 44 years of age, who had used cannabis during the past month two or more times weekly (and also two or more times weekly during the past 6 months), who had THC in their urine, who were familiar with smoking cannabis, and who were also prone to heavy episodic drinking of alcohol. Heavy episodic drinking was defined as having 5 or more alcoholic drinks per occasion for men and 4 or more drinks for women.</p>
<p>A standard alcoholic drink is defined as containing about 14 grams of pure ethanol. This is roughly equivalent to a small beer (350 ml), a glass of wine (150 ml), or a shot of spirits (45 ml).</p>
<p>All participants completed three experimental sessions in randomized orders. In one session they smoked cannabis with 3.1% THC, in another they smoked cannabis with 7.2% THC, and the third experimental session was a placebo session during which they smoked cannabis with almost no THC (0.03%). Experimental sessions were at least 5 days and no more than 3 weeks apart.</p>
<p>Before each experimental session, participants were told to abstain from cannabis and tobacco for 15 hours and from alcohol for 24 hours. They were also instructed to abstain from drinking caffeinated beverages for 2 hours before an experimental session.</p>
<p>Each experimental session started with a set of tests related to alcohol and cannabis levels, states related to the use of these substances, and several other assessments, including an assessment of alcohol craving. They also consumed lunch. </p>
<p>After this, participants smoked their assigned cannabis cigarettes. Next, they completed a test examining participants’ reactivity to alcohol cues (sight and smell of alcohol). In the end, they completed two alcohol choice tasks during which they were given an opportunity to either drink up to 8 mini-drinks of their choice or to receive $3 per drink not consumed.</p>
<p>Results showed that smoking cannabis had no effect on general cravings for alcohol (measured by the Alcohol Craving Questionnaire). Alcohol craving levels were similar in all three experimental conditions. However, after smoking 7.2% THC cannabis cigarettes, the specific urge to drink alcohol (measured by a single “urge” question) decreased significantly. Participants who smoked these cigarettes drank 27% less alcohol on average (compared to the placebo condition), while their alcohol consumption was 19% lower after smoking 3.1% THC cigarettes.</p>
<p>“Following overnight cannabis abstinence, smoking cannabis acutely decreased alcohol consumption compared to placebo,” study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the effects of cannabis on alcohol consumption. However, it should be noted that study participants were individuals who used cannabis frequently, with over 3 in 4 meeting criteria for current cannabis use disorder. They were also heavy alcohol drinkers. Because of this, they might have developed tolerance for the effects of these two substances. Results in individuals who use alcohol and cannabis less frequently might differ.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20250115">Acute Effects of Cannabis on Alcohol Craving and Consumption: A Randomized Controlled Crossover Trial,</a>” was authored by Jane Metrik, Elizabeth R. Aston, Rachel L. Gunn, Robert Swift, James MacKillop, and Christopher W. Kahler.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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