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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/prenatal-thc-exposure-linked-to-lasting-brain-changes-and-behavioral-issues/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Prenatal THC exposure linked to lasting brain changes and behavioral issues</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 20th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03189-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Molecular Psychiatry</a></em> provides evidence that exposure to cannabis during pregnancy may alter the trajectory of brain development in offspring from the fetal stage through adulthood. The findings indicate that high concentrations of the drug can lead to sustained reductions in brain volume and anxiety-like behaviors, particularly in females. This research utilizes advanced imaging techniques in mice to track these developmental changes over time.</p>
<p>Cannabis contains delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. This compound is the primary psychoactive ingredient responsible for the effects associated with the drug. It works by interacting with the endocannabinoid system, a biological network that plays a role in regulating various physiological processes. This system helps guide how the brain grows and organizes itself before birth. It influences essential mechanisms such as the creation of new neurons and the formation of connections between them.</p>
<p>Public perception regarding the safety of cannabis has shifted alongside legal changes in many regions. As the drug becomes more accessible, usage rates among pregnant individuals have increased. Some use it to manage symptoms such as morning sickness, anxiety, or pain. However, modern cannabis products often contain significantly higher concentrations of THC than those available in previous decades.</p>
<p>Medical professionals need to understand how these potent formulations might influence a developing fetus over the long term. Existing data has been limited, often relying on observational studies in humans that cannot fully isolate the effects of the drug from other environmental factors. Most previous research has also looked at the brain at a single point in time rather than following its growth continuously.</p>
<p>“As cannabis is legalized in more countries around the world and U.S. States, it is also increasingly being viewed as natural and safe. More people, including pregnant people, are using cannabis, and the concentration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive component in cannabis, is increasing too,” said study author Lani Cupo, a postdoctoral researcher at McGill University and member of <a href="https://www.cobralab.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the Computational Brain Anatomy Laboratory</a>.</p>
<p>“Pregnant people may use cannabis for a variety of reasons, either because they don’t know they are pregnant, to help manage mood changes, or to help treat symptoms associated with early pregnancy, such as nausea and vomiting accompanying morning sickness. People should be able to make their own informed decisions about what they do during pregnancy, but there is still a major gap in the scientific understanding of some of the long-term effects of cannabis exposure during pregnancy on brain development.”</p>
<p>The research team employed a mouse model to simulate prenatal exposure. Pregnant mice received daily injections of THC at a dose of 5 milligrams per kilogram from gestational day 3 to 10. This period corresponds roughly to the first trimester in human pregnancy. The dosage was intended to model moderate-to-heavy use, comparable to consuming high-potency cannabis products daily. A control group of pregnant mice received saline injections to provide a baseline for comparison.</p>
<p>To observe brain development, the scientists used magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI. They scanned the offspring at multiple time points to create a longitudinal dataset. The first set of images came from embryos extracted on gestational day 17. A second cohort of pups underwent scanning on alternate days from postnatal day 3 to 10. A third group was imaged during adolescence and adulthood, specifically on postnatal days 25, 35, 60, and 90. This approach allowed the team to track the growth curves of individual subjects throughout their lives.</p>
<p>Analysis of the embryonic images revealed that exposure to the drug affected physical development in the womb. Embryos exposed to THC had smaller overall body volumes compared to the control group. Despite the smaller body size, their brains showed enlargement in specific areas. The lateral ventricles, which are fluid-filled cavities within the brain, were significantly larger in the THC-exposed group. The corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres, also appeared larger at this stage.</p>
<p>As the mice entered the neonatal period, the pattern of growth shifted. The THC-exposed pups experienced a period of “catch-up” growth regarding their body weight. However, their brain development followed a different path. The rate of brain growth decelerated compared to the unexposed mice. This slowing of growth affected multiple regions, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and striatum.</p>
<p>By the time the animals reached adulthood, the structural differences remained evident. The reduction in brain volume persisted in regions such as the hippocampus and the hypothalamus. The data indicated a sex-dependent effect in the long-term outcomes. Female mice exposed to THC tended to show more pronounced volume reductions in adulthood compared to males. While male mice did exhibit some volume loss, they showed less severe reductions in specific areas like the cerebellum and olfactory bulbs compared to females.</p>
<p>“I was surprised by the apparent vulnerability in female mice compared to male mice when it came to effects in adulthood,” Cupo told PsyPost. “It is very clear from previous studies that sex as a biological variable is important in considering the impact of prenatal cannabis exposure, but the literature shows mixed results depending on the domain being investigated and the timing of outcomes and exposures.”</p>
<p>“Sometimes males are more impacted, sometimes females are more impacted. I think this highlights how critical it is to consider both biological sex and, in humans, gender, when studying prenatal exposures like cannabis. Unfortunately, some research still ignores this important consideration.”</p>
<p>The researchers also assessed behavior to see if these structural changes corresponded to functional differences. In the neonatal phase, researchers recorded ultrasonic vocalizations when pups were separated from their mothers. These high-frequency sounds serve as a form of communication for the young mice. Female pups exposed to THC produced fewer calls, which the authors suggest could indicate deficits in social communication. Conversely, male pups exposed to THC made more calls, potentially signaling increased anxiety or distress.</p>
<p>Later in adolescence, the mice underwent an open-field test to measure anxiety-like behavior. This test involves placing a mouse in a large box and observing its movement patterns. Animals that are anxious tend to stay near the walls and avoid the open center of the arena. The offspring exposed to THC moved less overall and spent significantly less time in the center of the box. This behavior is interpreted as an anxiety-like phenotype. The results provide evidence that the structural brain changes were accompanied by lasting behavioral alterations.</p>
<p>To investigate the cellular mechanisms behind these changes, the researchers used scanning electron microscopy. They examined brain tissue from the hippocampus at a very high resolution. In the embryonic stage, the THC group showed an increased number of dividing cells. This suggests that the drug might trigger premature cell proliferation. However, in the neonatal stage, they did not find a significant difference in the number of dying cells. This implies that the reduced brain volume observed later was likely not caused by mass cell death but perhaps by altered developmental timing.</p>
<p>“In short, we found that exposure to a high concentration of THC early in pregnancy can affect the brain until adulthood,” Cupo explained. “Specifically, we found larger volume of the ventricles, or fluid-filled cavities within the brain, before birth. Then, as the baby mice aged over the first two weeks of life, the brain of THC-exposed pups showed a decreased growth rate compared to the unexposed controls. This smaller volume was sustained until adulthood, especially in female mice.”</p>
<p>“Further, during adolescence the mice showed anxiety-like behavior. Notably, these results are fairly subtle, but they suggest that the trajectory of brain development itself can be impacted by exposure to cannabis early in pregnancy.”</p>
<p>While this study offers detailed insights into brain development, it relies on a rodent model. Mice and humans share many biological similarities, particularly in the endocannabinoid system, which makes them useful for studying basic developmental processes. However, the complexity of the human brain and environmental influences cannot be fully replicated in animal studies. For instance, the study used injections to deliver the drug, whereas humans typically inhale or ingest cannabis. The metabolism and concentration of the drug in the blood can differ based on the method of administration.</p>
<p>Despite these differences, animal models allow scientists to control variables that are impossible to manage in human research. They permit the isolation of a specific chemical’s effect without the confounding variables of diet, socioeconomic status, or other drug use that often complicate human studies. This specific study provided a level of anatomical detail through longitudinal imaging and microscopy that would be unethical or impossible to perform in living humans. The findings serve as a biological proof of principle that prenatal exposure can alter neurodevelopmental trajectories.</p>
<p>The study also utilized a relatively high dose of THC. While this was intended to mimic heavy usage, it may not reflect the effects of occasional or lower-dose use. Additionally, the study focused on THC in isolation. Commercial cannabis products contain a complex mixture of compounds, including cannabidiol (CBD) and terpenes, which might interact with THC to produce different effects.</p>
<p>“It can be easy to put a lot of pressure or even blame on people who use cannabis during their pregnancies, but the reality of the human experience is complex, especially during what can be such a transitional and tumultuous time,” Cupo said. “Although our results do show long-term impacts of cannabis exposure on brain outcomes, the reality of a human choosing to use cannabis or not is much more nuanced than we can recapitulate in a laboratory setting with rodents as a model.”</p>
<p>“In no way do I think these results should be used to shame or blame pregnant people. Instead I hope they can be seen as part of a bigger picture emerging to help supply pregnant people and their care providers with some useful information.”</p>
<p>Future research aims to address some of the current study’s limitations. The authors suggest investigating different methods of administration, such as vaporized cannabis, to better mimic human usage patterns. They also plan to examine the effects of other cannabinoids, such as CBD.</p>
<p>“We would also like to explore the timing of exposure, for example if it begins before conception, or if the father mouse consumes cannabis before conception,” Cupo added. “We would also like to explore more complex models, such as whether early life environmental enrichment can prevent some of the long-term impacts of cannabis exposure.”</p>
<p>“I would just like to re-emphasize that our study is a small piece of a much larger picture that researchers have been approaching from many different angles.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03189-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Impact of prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure on mouse brain development: a fetal-to-adulthood magnetic resonance imaging study</a>,” was authored by Lani Cupo, Haley A. Vecchiarelli, Daniel Gallino, Jared VanderZwaag, Katerina Bradshaw, Annie Phan, Mohammadparsa Khakpour, Benneth Ben-Azu, Elisa Guma, Jérémie P. Fouquet, Shoshana Spring, Brian J. Nieman, Gabriel A. Devenyi, Marie-Eve Tremblay, and M. Mallar Chakravarty.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/harvard-scientist-reveals-a-surprising-split-in-psychological-well-being-between-the-sexes/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Harvard scientist reveals a surprising split in psychological well-being between the sexes</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 20th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A new analysis of global data reveals that while men score higher on a majority of specific wellbeing metrics, women tend to report higher overall life satisfaction. The findings suggest that females often fare better on social relationship indicators, which appear to carry significant weight in subjective assessments of a good life. These results were published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2025.2587059" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Journal of Positive Psychology</a></em>.</p>
<p>Societal debates regarding how men and women fare relative to one another are common. However, existing scientific literature on this topic often suffers from specific limitations. Many studies rely on narrow definitions of wellbeing that focus heavily on mental or physical health diagnoses rather than a holistic view of human flourishing.</p>
<p>Additionally, much of the psychological research is conducted on Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) populations. This geographic bias limits the ability of scientists to make universal claims about human experience across different cultures.</p>
<p>Tim Lomas, a psychology research scientist at <a href="https://hfh.fas.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the Human Flourishing Program</a> at Harvard University, aimed to address these gaps by applying a broad conceptual framework to a truly international dataset.</p>
<p>“For wellbeing researchers, any sociodemographic differences—such as between males and females in the present paper—are inherently interesting and valuable in terms of furthering our understanding of the topic,” Lomas explained. “More importantly, though, one would ideally hope that such research can actually help improve people’s lives in the world. So, if we have a better sense of the ways in which males and females might respectively be particularly struggling, then that ideally helps people (e.g., policy makers) address these issues more effectively.”</p>
<p>Lomas utilized data collected by the Gallup World Poll, which relies on nationally representative, probability-based samples of adults aged 15 and older. The methodology typically involves surveying approximately 1,000 individuals per country to ensure the data accurately reflects the broader population.</p>
<p>The analysis spanned three years of data collection from 2020 through 2022, a period that necessitated a mix of telephone and face-to-face interviews depending on local pandemic restrictions. The final aggregated sample included exactly 391,656 individual participants across 142 countries.</p>
<p>Lomas selected 31 specific items from the poll to assess wellbeing comprehensively. These items were categorized into three main areas: life evaluation, daily emotions and experiences, and quality of life factors. Life evaluation was measured using Cantril’s Ladder, a tool where participants rate their current and future lives on a scale from zero to ten.</p>
<p>Daily experiences were assessed by asking if participants felt specific emotions or had specific experiences “yesterday.” These included positive states like feeling well-rested, being treated with respect, smiling or laughing, and learning something interesting. They also included negative states such as physical pain, worry, sadness, stress, and anger.</p>
<p>Quality of life measures examined broader factors beyond immediate emotional states. These included satisfaction with standard of living, feelings of safety while walking alone, and satisfaction with the freedom to choose what work to do. The survey also asked about objective hardships, such as not having enough money for food or shelter.</p>
<p>The statistical analysis revealed that males scored more favorably than females on 21 of the 31 variables. Men were more likely to report feeling well-rested, learning something new, and experiencing enjoyment. They also reported lower levels of negative emotions like pain, worry, sadness, stress, and anger compared to women.</p>
<p>Men also scored higher on measures of personal safety and autonomy. For instance, men were more likely to feel safe walking alone at night. They were also more likely to report being satisfied with their freedom to make life choices.</p>
<p>Despite scoring lower on a greater number of individual metrics, females reported higher scores on overall life evaluation. This finding presents a paradox where men appear to have more advantages in daily experiences and safety, yet women rate their lives more positively overall.</p>
<p>“Curiously and significantly…females have higher life evaluation (both present, future, and combined) on Cantril’s (1965) ‘ladder’ item. The ‘curiosity’ aspect of that sentence is that life evaluation is often regarded and used as the single best summary measure of a person’s subjective wellbeing,” Lomas wrote in the study. “…while females would seem to have greater wellbeing if just based on the life evaluation metrics alone, when structuring wellbeing into different components, males appear to do better, at least numerically. It is possible however that even though males place higher on more items, the third of items on which females excel may be more important for wellbeing.”</p>
<p>The data indicates that women tended to fare better on outcomes related to social connection. Females were more likely to report being treated with respect and having friends or relatives they could count on in times of trouble. They also scored higher on measures of “outer harmony,” which relates to getting along with others. Lomas suggests that because social relationships are often the strongest predictors of subjective wellbeing, strength in this area might outweigh deficits in other domains for women.</p>
<p>“Overall, the differences between males and females on most outcomes are not especially large, and on the whole their levels of wellbeing are fairly comparable,” he told PsyPost. “But the differences, such as they are, are still interesting and moreover actionable (e.g., with policy implications).”</p>
<p>These patterns were not uniform across the globe. Cultural context appeared to play a role in how sex differences manifested. South Asia was the region where males fared best relative to females.</p>
<p>In contrast, East Asia was the region where females fared best relative to males. This geographic variation provides evidence that sex differences in wellbeing are not purely biological but are heavily influenced by societal structures. Lomas also compared Iceland and Afghanistan to illustrate the impact of societal gender equality.</p>
<p>In Afghanistan, males scored higher than females on every single wellbeing metric measured. This reflects the severe restrictions and hardships faced by women in that nation. In Iceland, which is ranked highly for gender equality, females often outperformed males even on metrics where men typically lead globally.</p>
<p>Demographic factors such as age and education also influenced the results. The data showed that getting older tended to favor males more than females regarding wellbeing outcomes. As age increased, the gap between men and women often widened in favor of men on various metrics.</p>
<p>However, higher levels of education and income appeared to benefit females slightly more than males. When comparing the most educated participants to the least educated, the relative position of women improved on 16 variables. A similar pattern emerged when comparing the richest quintile of participants to the poorest.</p>
<p>“Wellbeing is multifaceted, and people—from the individual up to whole societies—can be doing well in some ways and less well in others,” Lomas said. “This applies to comparisons between males and females, where overall both groups seem to experience advantages and disadvantages in relation to wellbeing.”</p>
<p>The study has some limitations that provide context for the findings. Lomas notes that the analysis relies on a specific set of 31 items available in the Gallup World Poll. It is possible that a different selection of questions could yield different results.</p>
<p>For example, if the survey included more nuanced questions about relationship quality, women might have outperformed men on even more metrics. The study is also cross-sectional, meaning it captures a snapshot in time rather than tracking individuals over years. This design makes it difficult to determine causal directions for the observed differences.</p>
<p>“Although it’s obvious to most people, I’d emphasize that the results in the paper involve averages, and there will always be exceptions and counterexamples,” Lomas noted. “This applies both at an individual level (e.g., even if males generally tend to struggle on a particular outcome, a minority will excel on it), but also at a societal level (i.e., the findings in the paper are averaged across all the countries in the World Poll, but one can usually find exceptions where countries go against the general trend).”</p>
<p>For future research, Lomas intends to expand this line of inquiry by conducting longitudinal analyses. “Firstly, it would be good to explore trends over time using the Gallup World Poll, which goes back to 2006,” he explained. “Additionally, we plan to use panel data from <a href="https://globalflourishingstudy.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the Global Flourishing Study</a> (for which I’m the project manager) for the same purpose, and although it has fewer years of data (its first wave was in 2023), it is a genuine panel study (unlike the World Poll, which is cross sectional), so we may get some better insights into causal dynamics.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2025.2587059" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Global sex-based wellbeing differences in the Gallup World Poll: males do better on more metrics, but females generally do better on those that may matter most</a>,” was authored by Tim Lomas.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/egalitarians-and-anti-egalitarians-share-the-same-negative-mental-image-of-the-poor/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Egalitarians and anti-egalitarians share the same negative mental image of the poor</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 19th 2025, 20:00</div>
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<p><p>People who support social equality often express far more positive attitudes toward the poor than those who favor social hierarchy. A new study reveals that despite these differing opinions, both groups hold remarkably similar—and negative—mental images of what a poor person looks like. Published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672251371787" target="_blank">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a></em>, these findings suggest that deep-seated cultural stereotypes about poverty may persist even among those who consciously oppose inequality.</p>
<p>Inequality is a persistent feature of human history, from ancient religious stratifications to modern economic divides. At the heart of these hierarchies lies a tension over who possesses resources and who does not. Those at the top generally have access to capital and comfort, while those at the bottom face deprivation.</p>
<p>Psychologists use a framework called Social Dominance Theory to understand how people navigate these group-based hierarchies. The theory categorizes individuals based on their preference for group-based dominance. Some people, termed “anti-egalitarians,” prefer a stratified society and are motivated to justify the unequal distribution of resources.</p>
<p>On the other side of the spectrum are “egalitarians.” These individuals are motivated to challenge and dismantle these hierarchies. Past research shows that anti-egalitarians often use stereotypes to blame the poor for their own poverty, labeling them as lazy or undeserving. Egalitarians typically reject these labels and argue that systemic issues cause poverty.</p>
<p>Researchers Wilson N. Merrell and Lei Fan, along with their colleagues, wanted to investigate whether these ideological differences extend beyond spoken attitudes. They sought to understand if a person’s political leaning influences the actual mental picture they conjure up when thinking of a poor person. The research team is associated with Aarhus University in Denmark and the University of Oslo in Norway.</p>
<p>The investigators tested two competing hypotheses regarding how we visualize others. The “Divergence Hypothesis” suggests that our motivations shape our perception. If this were true, egalitarians would visualize the poor in a more positive light than anti-egalitarians, matching their stated beliefs.</p>
<p>Conversely, the “Convergence Hypothesis” suggests that stereotypes about the poor are so fundamental that they are shared across the political spectrum. This view posits that everyone is exposed to the same cultural cues linking poverty to certain negative traits. If this were true, everyone would generate similar mental images regardless of their personal ideology.</p>
<p>To test these ideas, the researchers employed a technique called visual reverse correlation. This method functions somewhat like a police sketch artist session but relies on data rather than verbal descriptions. It allows scientists to visualize the internal mental templates people hold for specific social groups.</p>
<p>In the first study, the researchers recruited 625 participants from the United Kingdom. These participants, referred to as “generators,” completed a task involving 300 trials. In each trial, they viewed two side-by-side images of a face.</p>
<p>The images were created by superimposing random visual noise—fuzzy, static-like patterns—over a base image of a neutral White male face. One image had a specific pattern of noise added, while the other had that same pattern subtracted. This created subtle distortions that the brain interprets as facial features.</p>
<p>Participants were asked to select which of the two faces looked “poor” or “rich.” By averaging the noise patterns from the selected images, the researchers created a composite face. This composite represented the participant’s visual prototype of that social category.</p>
<p>After generating the images, the participants reported their explicit attitudes. They answered questions about whether they viewed the poor as lazy or hardworking, and how warm or cold they felt toward them. They also completed a standard scale to measure their level of support for social hierarchy.</p>
<p>The results regarding explicit attitudes were expected. Egalitarians reported feeling much warmer toward the poor. They described the poor as less lazy and more socially connected than the anti-egalitarians did.</p>
<p>However, the visual data told a different story. The researchers analyzed the “pixel luminance” of the composite images. This objective measure looks at the patterns of light and dark in the created faces to see how mathematically similar they are.</p>
<p>The analysis showed a high correlation between the images generated by egalitarians and those generated by anti-egalitarians. The structural features of the faces were nearly identical. This provided the first evidence for the Convergence Hypothesis.</p>
<p>To verify what these images actually looked like to a neutral observer, the researchers conducted a second study. They recruited a new group of 394 participants to act as “raters.” These individuals were shown the composite faces generated in the first study.</p>
<p>The raters were not told how the images were created or who created them. They simply evaluated the faces on basic personality traits. They rated the faces on characteristics such as warmth, competence, dominance, aggression, and intelligence.</p>
<p>The findings confirmed the objective pixel analysis. The faces generated by the egalitarians were rated just as negatively as the faces generated by the anti-egalitarians. Both sets of images depicting “poor” people were seen as less competent, less warm, and less healthy than the images depicting “rich” people.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a third study to dig deeper into social attitudes. They wanted to see if the images conveyed specific information about how a person might act in a group. A new sample of 348 raters evaluated the faces on traits like “solidarity” and “laziness.”</p>
<p>Once again, the ideology of the original image creator made no difference. The faces generated by egalitarians appeared just as “lazy” and lacking in solidarity as those generated by their ideological opposites. The visual template for a poor person appeared to be universally negative.</p>
<p>This third study did uncover one area where ideology mattered. While the images themselves were static, the raters’ own political leanings influenced how they judged them. Egalitarian raters tended to be less harsh in their evaluations of the poor faces than anti-egalitarian raters.</p>
<p>This suggests a “nuanced interplay” in how we process social hierarchy. We all seem to share the same negative visual stereotype of poverty, likely learned from culture or media. However, egalitarians appear to consciously override this visual signal when making explicit judgments.</p>
<p>The authors posit that these mental representations might be “cognitive building blocks.” They are automatic visualizations that pop into our minds before we have a chance to apply our political or moral filters. The fact that they are shared suggests that resource-based stereotypes are deeply ingrained in our collective psychology.</p>
<p>The study has some limitations that the authors acknowledge. The base face used in the reverse correlation task was a White male. This was done to isolate the variable of social class, but it means the results might not apply to mental representations of poor women or people of color.</p>
<p>Additionally, the study cannot pinpoint the origin of these images. It is unclear whether these visual templates come from personal interactions with the poor or from media depictions. Movies and news reports often rely on visual shorthands for poverty that could reinforce these stereotypes.</p>
<p>Future research could explore these origins by looking at different cultures. If the same visual patterns appear in societies with different media environments, it might suggest a more evolutionary basis for these perceptions. Conversely, differences across cultures would point to learned stereotypes.</p>
<p>Another avenue for investigation is behavior. This study looked at mental images and reported attitudes, but not actions. It remains to be seen whether these negative mental images predict discriminatory behavior, such as refusing to hire someone or opposing welfare policies.</p>
<p>The authors also suggest investigating “rater” effects more closely. Since egalitarians judged the negative faces more leniently, it is possible that they are engaging in a form of correction. They may see the same negative cues but choose to interpret them with more empathy.</p>
<p>Ultimately, this research highlights a disconnection between what we believe and what we see. We may genuinely desire a more equal society and hold positive views of the disadvantaged. Yet, our brains may still harbor negative visual associations that contradict those conscious beliefs.</p>
<p>Understanding this discrepancy is vital for addressing prejudice. It suggests that simply changing explicit attitudes may not be enough to erase bias. If the visual template of poverty remains negative, it may continue to exert a subtle influence on how we perceive and treat others.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672251371787" target="_blank">Resource Possession in the Mind’s Eye: Ideological Convergence and Divergence in the Perceptions of Poor People</a>,” was authored by Wilson N. Merrell, Lei Fan, Jennifer Sheehy-Skeffington, and Lotte Thomsen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/does-body-mass-index-influence-sperm-quality-in-committed-couples/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Does body mass index influence sperm quality in committed couples?</a>
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<p><p>A recent study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-025-00456-0" target="_blank">Evolutionary Psychological Science</a></em> failed to find evidence that body mass index is be a strong predictor of sperm quality during intercourse in young, committed couples. The research examined potential links between the body size of both partners and various measures of ejaculate quality but found no significant associations. </p>
<p>Scientists have studied how physical traits influence reproduction across many species. In various animal models, males often produce more sperm when mating with larger females. This occurs because larger female size frequently signals higher fertility or a greater capacity to carry offspring.</p>
<p>Males in these species biologically adjust their investment to maximize the chances of fertilization. This strategy helps ensure that their genetic material competes successfully against potential rivals. Researchers have sought to determine if this evolutionary pattern holds true for human beings.</p>
<p>An influential study conducted in the early 1990s suggested that this mechanism might exist in humans. That research indicated that men inseminated more sperm when their female partners possessed a higher body weight. Despite the attention this finding received, the topic has seen limited follow-up investigation in the decades since.</p>
<p>“Research in nonhuman animals routinely finds that males inseminate more sperm into larger females, as this is considered a sign of greater fertility in females. This suggests that males strategically adjust their ejaculates to increase the chances of reproduction,” said study author Tara DeLecce, a postdoctoral researcher and special lecturer at Oakland University. </p>
<p>“The extent to which this applies in humans, however, is not well understood. In 1993, Robin Baker and Mark Bellis tested this relationship in humans and found that female weight was positively correlated with the number of sperm inseminated during copulation. No other study has investigated the relationship between female size and ejaculate quality in humans since then, so we were trying to replicate and expand on Baker and Bellis’ findings.” </p>
<p>“There is also a well-established body of literature on the detrimental effects of obesity on both male and female fertility, so we additionally wanted to better understand if weight is the best proxy for fertility in humans compared to other species.”</p>
<p>For their new study, the research team recruited 34 heterosexual couples to participate in the investigation. Most participants were attending a university in the Midwestern United States. The average age of the participants was approximately 21 years old.</p>
<p>To be eligible for the study, couples had to be in a committed relationship. The relationship must have been ongoing for at least three months prior to the study. Participants also needed to be between the ages of 18 and 35 to minimize the effects of age-related fertility decline.</p>
<p>The researchers utilized precise methods to measure body composition rather than relying on self-reports. They calculated the Body Mass Index for each individual by measuring height and weight in a laboratory setting. Researchers of the same sex as the participant performed these measurements to reduce potential anxiety.</p>
<p>Data collection involved analyzing biological samples produced during sexual intimacy. Couples were provided with specific non-latex, non-spermicidal condoms to use during intercourse. They were instructed to collect three separate samples over a period of 45 days.</p>
<p>The protocol required participants to abstain from ejaculation for at least 48 hours before collecting a sample. This abstinence period was capped at seven days to ensure standardization. Couples were also instructed to avoid scheduling collection sessions while the female partner was menstruating.</p>
<p>Participants followed strict protocols to maintain the integrity of the samples. They were required to deliver the samples to the laboratory within one hour of collection. The samples were kept close to the body during transport to maintain a temperature similar to internal body heat.</p>
<p>Participants wrapped the specimen containers in aluminum foil to assist with temperature retention. This procedure was intended to keep the sperm alive and active for analysis. Upon arrival at the laboratory, the volume of the ejaculate was measured immediately.</p>
<p>The samples were then analyzed using an automated system called the SQA-V. This machine uses electro-optical technology to assess various sperm parameters. It measured volume, concentration, and the percentage of sperm with normal shapes.</p>
<p>The system also assessed sperm motility, which refers to the ability of sperm to swim effectively. This is a key indicator of fertility potential. The researchers averaged the data from the three samples provided by each couple to create a reliable profile.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that male Body Mass Index was not associated with ejaculate volume. There was also no significant link between male weight and sperm concentration. Men classified as overweight or obese did not differ significantly from normal-weight men on these metrics.</p>
<p>The study also found no relationship between male body size and sperm motility. The percentage of normally shaped sperm did not differ across the weight categories. These null results contrast with some prior studies that focused on men seeking infertility treatments.</p>
<p>The researchers then examined the potential influence of the female partner’s body size. The analysis showed no evidence that men produced higher quality ejaculates with partners who had a higher Body Mass Index. This finding does not support the “sperm competition” hypothesis derived from the 1990s research.</p>
<p>The data suggests that female body weight may not be a primary cue for adjusting sperm allocation in humans. It is possible that other traits are more relevant for signaling fertility in women. Traits such as waist-to-hip ratio might play a larger role than overall mass.</p>
<p>One statistical relationship did emerge from the data regarding the couples’ history. The length of the couple’s relationship was a positive predictor of ejaculate volume. Men in longer relationships tended to produce a greater volume of seminal fluid.</p>
<p>Relationship length did not predict other quality metrics like sperm morphology or concentration. The reasons for the link between relationship duration and volume remain open to interpretation. It may reflect unmeasured health or behavioral factors common in stable, long-term pairings.</p>
<p>The authors noted several limitations that provide context for these findings. The sample size of 34 couples was relatively small. A statistical power analysis suggested that hundreds of couples would be needed to detect small effects definitively.</p>
<p>The participants were also generally young and healthy university students. Previous studies that found links between obesity and low sperm quality often used older men or those with known health issues. The negative effects of obesity might be less visible in a young, healthy population.</p>
<p>Methodological differences between this study and the 1990s research might also explain the conflicting results regarding female size. The earlier study used manual counting methods rather than automated technology. The number of samples collected per couple also varied significantly between the two studies.</p>
<p>The findings imply that the relationship between body size and fertility markers is complex. Body Mass Index serves as a general proxy for body composition but may lack nuance. It does not distinguish between muscle mass and fat mass, for instance.</p>
<p>The study highlights the difficulty of replicating evolutionary psychology findings across different contexts. What holds true for insects or non-human mammals does not always translate directly to human physiology. Human mating behavior involves a distinct set of social and biological variables.</p>
<p>Future research is needed to settle the questions raised by this study. The researchers suggest that larger studies involving a more diverse range of body types are necessary. Such scale would provide a clearer picture of how body weight interacts with reproductive biology in the general population.</p>
<p>“According to our results, body mass index for both men and women is not significantly associated with the number of sperm men inseminate into their female partners during heterosexual intercourse,” DeLecce said. “However, this may be due to our small sample size that did not allow for the ability to detect statistically small effects.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-025-00456-0" target="_blank">Male and Female BMI are not Associated with Copulatory Ejaculate Quality Among Committed Couples</a>,” was authored by Tara DeLecce, Zachary W. Sundin, Bernhard Fink, and Todd K. Shackelford.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/non-intoxicating-cannabis-compound-may-reverse-opioid-induced-brain-changes/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Non-intoxicating cannabis compound may reverse opioid-induced brain changes</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 19th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study has revealed that cannabidiol, a non-intoxicating compound found in the cannabis plant, may help prevent opioid relapse by repairing specific cellular damage in the brain. Researchers found that the compound reduced heroin-seeking behavior in rats by reversing genetic disruptions caused by drug use. The treatment appeared to target the brain’s structural support system and immune responses. These findings were published recently in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.08.023" target="_blank">Biological Psychiatry</a></em>.</p>
<p>Opioid use disorder is a chronic condition defined by a cycle of use, abstinence, and relapse. Even after a person stops using the drug, the risk of returning to it remains high. Relapse is often triggered by environmental cues. These cues can be anything associated with past drug use, such as specific people, places, or paraphernalia.</p>
<p>Current treatments for opioid addiction often involve substituting one opioid for another, less harmful one. While effective, these treatments have limitations and regulatory hurdles. There is a pressing need for non-opioid medications that can reduce cravings without addictive side effects.</p>
<p>Cannabidiol, commonly known as CBD, has emerged as a potential candidate for this role. Previous research has indicated that CBD can reduce cravings and anxiety in humans with a history of heroin use. However, scientists did not fully understand the biological mechanisms behind this effect.</p>
<p>To address this gap, a team of researchers led by Alexandra Chisholm and Yasmin L. Hurd investigated the molecular changes in the brain associated with CBD treatment. Yasmin Hurd is a prominent researcher in the field of addiction neurobiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Alexandra Chisholm is the study’s first author.</p>
<p>The team focused their investigation on the nucleus accumbens. This brain region serves as a central hub for processing rewards and motivation. It plays a primary role in addiction and the response to drug-related cues. The nucleus accumbens is divided into two subregions: the core and the shell.</p>
<p>The researchers began the study by training male rats to self-administer heroin. The rats learned to press a lever to receive a dose of the drug. Each time the rats received the drug, a specific light turned on. This light served as a cue, creating a mental association between the visual signal and the drug’s effect.</p>
<p>After the training period, the rats went through a phase of abstinence. They were kept away from the drug for two weeks to simulate a person in recovery. This period allows the brain to transition from a state of intoxication to a drug-free state.</p>
<p>At the end of the abstinence period, the researchers administered either CBD or a placebo vehicle to the rats. They tested two different doses of CBD to see if the amount of medication influenced the outcome. The researchers then returned the rats to the environment where they had previously used heroin.</p>
<p>During this test, the cue light was turned on, but pressing the lever did not deliver any heroin. This setup is designed to measure “drug-seeking behavior.” The researchers counted how many times the rats pressed the lever in response to the light. This action serves as a proxy for craving and relapse vulnerability.</p>
<p>The behavioral results showed a clear effect. Rats that had been treated with heroin but received only the placebo pressed the lever frequently. They demonstrated a strong drive to seek the drug when presented with the cue.</p>
<p>In contrast, rats treated with CBD pressed the lever far fewer times. This reduction in drug seeking was most evident in the group that received the higher dose of 10 milligrams per kilogram. The treatment effectively dampened the urge to respond to the trigger.</p>
<p>Following the behavioral tests, the researchers analyzed the brain tissue of the rats. They used a technique called RNA sequencing to examine gene activity. They looked specifically at the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell. This allowed them to see which genes were turned on or off by heroin exposure and how CBD affected them.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that heroin use left a lasting genetic imprint on the brain. However, the impact was not uniform across the nucleus accumbens. The shell region showed a much more extensive disturbance than the core. Heroin exposure altered the expression of over 4,000 genes in the shell, compared to roughly 400 in the core.</p>
<p>The researchers then looked at how CBD influenced these disrupted genes. They found that CBD acted as a normalizing agent. In the rats treated with CBD, the expression levels of many genes that heroin had disturbed returned to levels similar to those seen in drug-naive animals.</p>
<p>This normalization was particularly strong in the nucleus accumbens shell. The study identified that CBD specifically restored genes related to two key biological systems. These were the extracellular matrix and the function of astrocytes.</p>
<p>The extracellular matrix is a complex mesh of proteins and carbohydrates that surrounds brain cells. It provides structural support and helps regulate communication between neurons. Heroin exposure appeared to degrade this structure. The data suggested that CBD helped rebuild or stabilize this critical scaffolding.</p>
<p>Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells that support neurons. They manage the chemical environment of the brain and control inflammation. The study found that heroin caused an upregulation of a gene called Gfap, which is a marker for astrocyte activation and potential inflammation.</p>
<p>High levels of Gfap often indicate that the brain is reacting to injury or stress. In the rats treated with CBD, levels of Gfap were reduced. This suggests that CBD may lower neuroinflammation caused by opioid history.</p>
<p>Another critical finding involved a gene known as Slc1a2. This gene produces a protein responsible for clearing glutamate from the spaces between neurons. Glutamate is the brain’s main excitatory chemical messenger.</p>
<p>In the heroin-exposed rats, Slc1a2 expression was lower than normal. This reduction would likely lead to excess glutamate building up around neurons. Such a buildup can cause over-excitement in the brain circuits that drive craving.</p>
<p>CBD treatment restored Slc1a2 expression to near-normal levels. By doing so, CBD likely helps astrocytes clear glutamate more efficiently. This would restore chemical balance and reduce the overactive signaling that contributes to relapse.</p>
<p>The researchers also noted a connection between these cellular changes and the immune system. Upstream regulators, which are molecules that control gene expression, were identified in the analysis. Many of these regulators are involved in immune responses.</p>
<p>This connection implies that the brain’s immune system interacts with the structural matrix and support cells to drive addiction behavior. By modulating these immune-related pathways, CBD appears to interrupt the cycle of damage and repair that fuels drug seeking.</p>
<p>The study provides a detailed map of the molecular “signatures” associated with heroin relapse. It highlights the nucleus accumbens shell as a particularly sensitive region. The ability of CBD to reverse these specific signatures offers a biological explanation for its therapeutic potential.</p>
<p>However, there are limitations to this research. The study utilized only male rats. Biological sex can influence addiction and the response to treatments. It is not yet known if female rats would show the exact same molecular changes or respond to CBD in an identical manner.</p>
<p>Additionally, the study focused on gene expression. While gene activity is a strong indicator of cellular function, it does not always correspond perfectly to protein levels. Proteins are the functional molecules that carry out cellular tasks. Future research will need to confirm that these genetic changes result in corresponding changes in protein levels.</p>
<p>The researchers also noted that they did not include a group of drug-naive rats treated with CBD. This control would help determine if CBD affects these genes in a healthy brain or only in a brain altered by opioids. However, the primary goal was to see if CBD could reverse heroin-induced damage.</p>
<p>Future studies will likely investigate the functional consequences of these molecular changes. Scientists will want to prove that fixing the extracellular matrix or calming astrocytes directly causes the reduction in drug seeking. This would strengthen the case for targeting these specific systems in addiction treatment.</p>
<p>This research represents a step forward in understanding the biology of addiction recovery. It moves beyond observing behavior to identifying the cellular repair mechanisms that may enable recovery. By stabilizing the brain’s environment, CBD may offer a physiological shield against the cues that trigger relapse.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.08.023" target="_blank">Cannabidiol Attenuates Heroin Seeking in Male Rats Associated With Normalization of Discrete Neurobiological Signatures Within the Nucleus Accumbens With Subregional Specificity</a>,” was authored by Alexandra Chisholm, Jacqueline-Marie N. Ferland, Randall J. Ellis, and Yasmin L. Hurd.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/how-running-tricks-your-brain-into-overestimating-time/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">How running tricks your brain into overestimating time</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 19th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-07814-9" target="_blank">Scientific Reports</a></em> has revealed that running alters how we perceive time. Researchers note that the effect is driven by the mental demands of controlling movement, rather than physical exertion.</p>
<p>Human perception of time rarely aligns perfectly with clock time. Everyday experiences, such as waiting in line or enduring a monotonous task, can feel longer than they truly are. Research has shown that physical activity, including cycling, walking, and running, can influence these distortions of time.</p>
<p>However, the underlying mechanism has remained uncertain. Some scientists have argued that physiological changes, such as elevated heart rate or hormone release, are responsible. Others have proposed that cognitive factors, particularly the attentional resources required to manage complex movements, play a more significant role.</p>
<p>Led by Tommaso Bartolini from the Italian Institute of Technology, the research team sought to clarify whether distortions in time perception during running are primarily physiological or cognitive in origin. Running on a treadmill requires careful motor control, which may place additional demands on attention. By comparing running with other conditions that involve less physical effort but still require cognitive resources, the researchers aimed to isolate the source of the effect.</p>
<p>The study involved 22 participants (10 females), with an average age of 26. Each participant was asked to memorize a two‑second visual stimulus (a blue square displayed on a screen) and then judge whether subsequent stimuli lasted the same amount of time. This task was performed under four conditions: standing still (baseline), running on a treadmill at 80 percent of maximum heart rate, walking backwards on the treadmill, or standing still while performing a concurrent visual memory task (dual task).</p>
<p>Heart rate was monitored throughout the running and backward walking sessions to measure physical exertion**, while it was recorded for one minute prior to the baseline and dual task sessions.** The researchers then analyzed the accuracy and precision of participants’ time judgments across conditions.</p>
<p>The results revealed a consistent pattern. In all three experimental conditions (running, walking backwards, and the dual task) participants overestimated the duration of stimuli compared to the baseline. For example, during running, a stimulus lasting approximately 1.8 seconds was perceived as equal to the two‑second reference, representing an overestimation of nearly nine percent. Walking backwards and the dual task produced similar distortions of about seven percent.</p>
<p>Importantly, these distortions did not correlate with changes in heart rate. Although running elevated heart rate substantially more than walking backwards, the magnitude of the time distortion was nearly identical. This strongly suggests that the effect is not driven by physiological exertion but by the cognitive effort required to control movement or divide attention.</p>
<p>Notably, participants’ precision—i.e., the consistency of their judgments—remained stable across conditions. This indicates that while their perception of duration was biased, their ability to reproduce that bias reliably was unaffected.</p>
<p>Bartolini and colleagues concluded, “the results of the current study suggest that we should be very cautious in interpreting perceptual timing biases observed during physical activities as reflecting physiological alterations. The results also encourage the scientific community investigating time perception in ecological sensorimotor contexts to consider the potential confounding role of cognitive factors implicated in the execution of complex motor routines.”</p>
<p>Some limitations are to be noted. For instance, the study focused exclusively on running and visual stimuli, leaving open questions about whether similar effects occur with other activities or sensory modalities.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-07814-9" target="_blank">The role of physical and cognitive effort on time perception</a>,” was authored by Tommaso Bartolini, Irene Petrizzo, Roberto Arrighi, and Giovanni Anobile</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/escitalopram-normalizes-brain-activity-related-to-social-anxiety-disorder-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Escitalopram normalizes brain activity related to social anxiety disorder, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 19th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A study of individuals with social anxiety disorder in Finland found that the activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus region of the brain when processing negative versus positive adjectives referring to oneself is weaker than in healthy participants. After taking escitalopram, the activity in this region when processing negative adjectives increased. The research was published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2025.112092"><em>Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging</em></a>.</p>
<p>Social anxiety disorder is a mental health condition characterized by an intense and persistent fear of social situations in which a person may be judged, embarrassed, or scrutinized by others. People with this disorder fear speaking in public, meeting new people, being observed while eating or working, and many similar situations. Their anxiety is disproportionate to the actual threat posed by the situation and persists even when the person recognizes that the fear is excessive.</p>
<p>Physical symptoms of social anxiety include blushing, sweating, trembling, rapid heartbeat, nausea, or difficulty speaking. Because of these symptoms, individuals suffering from social anxiety tend to avoid social situations altogether or endure them with significant distress.</p>
<p>Social anxiety disorder typically begins in adolescence or early adulthood, though it can occur at any age. It is distinct from ordinary shyness in that it causes marked impairment and significant suffering. The disorder is associated with negative self-beliefs, such as fears of appearing incompetent or being rejected.</p>
<p>Study author Rasmus Rinne and his colleagues wanted to examine the differences between individuals suffering from social anxiety disorder and healthy individuals during self-referential processing—i.e., while they are evaluating information in relation to themselves. They also wanted to see how escitalopram, a drug commonly prescribed to treat depression and anxiety disorders, changes this activity.</p>
<p>The final analysis included 35 individuals diagnosed with social anxiety disorder and 16 healthy individuals. Their average age was 25 years. 27 participants from the social anxiety group and 7 from the healthy group were women.</p>
<p>Participants with social anxiety disorder were randomly divided into two groups. One group was to receive 10mg of escitalopram per day for 7 days, while the other group received identical-looking tablets with no active ingredients for the same period (placebo). The study was double-blind, which means that participants did not know whether they were receiving escitalopram or placebo, and this was unknown to researchers directly interacting with them as well.</p>
<p>While undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), participants completed a set of self-referential processing tasks. Study authors asked each participant to imagine overhearing a group talking about him or her using the adjective shown on the screen and to then respond depending on whether they saw the adjective as positive or negative.</p>
<p>There was a total of 60 adjectives describing positive and negative personality features and 20 neutral words (10 times the word “left” and 10 times the word “right”). A set of functional magnetic resonance images was also taken while participants were resting (resting-state fMRI).</p>
<p>The results showed that the social anxiety group showed a smaller difference in the activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus region of the brain when processing negative compared to positive adjectives than the healthy group. In the group that was taking escitalopram treatment, this difference was increased.</p>
<p>The difference in the level of activity in the precentral gyrus when processing negative and neutral adjectives was also lower in the social anxiety group.</p>
<p>“SAD [social anxiety disorder] may be associated with decreased activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus to negative self-referential social cues. Escitalopram may normalize such activation. As left inferior frontal gyrus has been linked to inner speech while working on self-reflection tasks, the increased activation might relate to reappraising negative social cues,” study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the effects of escitalopram in individuals with social anxiety disorder. However, the study was conducted on a relatively small sample. Results on larger samples might differ.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2025.112092">Escitalopram normalizes decreased left inferior frontal gyrus activation in social anxiety disorder during self-referential processing,</a>” was authored by Rasmus Rinne, Roope Heikkilä, Tuukka T Raij, Emma Komulainen, Jesper Ekelund, and Erkki Isometsä.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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