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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/alcohol-use-disorder-triggers-a-distinct-immune-response-linked-to-neurodegeneration/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Alcohol use disorder triggers a distinct immune response linked to neurodegeneration</a>
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<p><p>New research published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2025.106156" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Brain, Behavior, and Immunity</a></em> provides evidence that alcohol use disorder triggers a distinct type of immune response in the brain. The findings suggest that excessive alcohol consumption shifts the brain’s immune cells into a reactive state that ultimately damages neurons. The study identifies a specific cellular pathway linking alcohol exposure to neurodegeneration.</p>
<p>Scientists have recognized for some time that the brain possesses its own immune system. The primary component of this system is a type of cell known as microglia. Under normal conditions, microglia function as caretakers that maintain the health of the brain environment. They clear away debris and monitor for threats.</p>
<p>When the brain encounters injury or disease, microglia undergo a transformation. They become “reactive,” changing their shape and function to address the problem. While this reaction is intended to protect the brain, chronic activation can lead to inflammation and tissue damage.</p>
<p>Previous investigations established that heavy alcohol use increases inflammation in the brain. However, the specific characteristics of the microglia in individuals with alcohol use disorder remained poorly defined. It was unclear if these cells behaved similarly to how they react in other neurodegenerative conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease.</p>
<p>The authors of the new study sought to create a detailed profile of these cells. They aimed to understand how reactive microglia might contribute to the brain damage and cognitive deficits often observed in severe alcohol dependency.</p>
<p>“We wanted to clearly define the microglial activated phenotype in alcohol use disorder using both morphology and protein expression from histochemistry and compare that to messenger RNA transcription changes,” said study author <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/alcohol/faculty-research-2/preclinical-molecular-pharmacology-research-team/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Fulton T. Crews</a>, a John Andrews Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.</p>
<p>The research team examined post-mortem brain tissue. They focused on the orbital frontal cortex, a region of the brain involved in decision-making and impulse control. The samples included tissue from twenty individuals diagnosed with alcohol use disorder and twenty moderate drinking controls. The researchers matched these groups by age to ensure that aging itself did not skew the results.</p>
<p>The researchers utilized two primary methods to analyze the tissue. First, they used immunohistochemistry to visualize proteins within the cells. This technique allows scientists to see the shape and quantity of specific cell types. Second, they employed real-time PCR to measure gene expression. This reveals which genetic instructions are being actively turned into proteins. By comparing protein levels and gene activity, the researchers could build a comprehensive picture of the cellular state.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed significant changes in the microglia of the alcohol use disorder group. These cells displayed a “reactive” phenotype characterized by increased levels of specific proteins. Markers associated with inflammation and cellular cleanup, such as Iba1 and CD68, were substantially elevated. The density of Iba1 staining, which indicates the presence and size of these cells, was more than ten times higher in the alcohol group compared to controls.</p>
<p>The researchers also identified a discrepancy between protein levels and gene expression. While the proteins for markers like Iba1 and CD68 were abundant, the corresponding mRNA levels were not significantly changed. This indicates that relying solely on gene expression data might miss key signs of immune activation in the brain. It suggests that the increase in these markers occurs at the protein level or through the accumulation of the cells themselves.</p>
<p>The researchers found that this microglial profile is distinct from what is typically seen in Alzheimer’s disease. In Alzheimer’s, reactive microglia often show increases in a receptor called TREM2 and various complement genes. The alcohol-exposed brains did not show these specific changes. Instead, they displayed a reduction in Tmem119, a marker associated with healthy, homeostatic microglia. This helps distinguish the pathology of alcohol use disorder from other neurodegenerative diseases.</p>
<p>Beyond microglia, the study investigated astrocytes. Astrocytes are another type of glial cell that generally support neuronal function. The data showed that markers for reactive astrocytes were higher in the alcohol group. This increase was strongly correlated with the presence of reactive microglia.</p>
<p>The researchers also assessed the health of neurons in the orbital frontal cortex. They observed a reduction in neuronal markers, such as NeuN and MAP2. This reduction indicates a loss of neurons or a decrease in their structural integrity. When the researchers analyzed the relationships between these variables, they found a clear pattern. The data supports a model where alcohol activates microglia, which in turn activates astrocytes. These reactive astrocytes then appear to contribute to neuronal damage.</p>
<p>To verify this sequence of events, the researchers turned to a mouse model. They exposed mice to chronic ethanol levels that mimic binge drinking. As expected, the mice developed reactive microglia and astrocytes, along with signs of oxidative stress. The team then used a genetic tool called DREADDs to selectively inhibit the microglia.</p>
<p>When the researchers prevented the microglia from becoming reactive, the downstream effects were blocked. The mice did not develop reactive astrocytes despite the alcohol exposure. Furthermore, the markers of oxidative stress and DNA damage were reduced. This experimental evidence provides strong support for the findings in human tissue. It suggests that microglia act as the primary driver of the neuroinflammatory cascade caused by alcohol.</p>
<p>“Neuroinflammation and activated microglia are linked to multiple brain diseases, including alcohol use disorder, but are poorly defined,” Crews told PsyPost. “They are likely not the same across brain disorders and we are trying to improve the definition. Studies finding activated microglia in Alzheimer’s have observed large increases in expression of complement genes, but our study did not find complement proteins increased in alcohol use disorder, suggesting different types of activation.”</p>
<p>The researchers also noted a connection between the severity of the cellular changes and drinking history. In the human samples, levels of reactive glial markers correlated with lifetime alcohol consumption. Individuals who had consumed more alcohol over their lives tended to have more extensive activation of these immune cells. This points to a cumulative effect of drinking on brain health.</p>
<p>Future research will likely focus on how these reactive microglia differ from those in other conditions. Understanding the unique “signature” of alcohol-induced inflammation could lead to better diagnostic tools.</p>
<p>Scientists may also explore whether treatments that target glial activation could protect the brain from alcohol-related damage. Developing therapies to block this specific immune response could potentially reduce neurodegeneration in individuals struggling with alcohol addiction.</p>
<p>“Our long term goal is to understand how microglia contribute to disease progression and to develop therapies blocking microglial activation and neuroinflammation that prevent chronic brain diseases,” Crews said.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2025.106156" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cortical reactive microglia activate astrocytes, increasing neurodegeneration in human alcohol use disorder</a>,” was authored by Fulton T. Crews, Liya Qin, Leon Coleman, Elena Vidrascu, and Ryan Vetreno.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/conservatives-are-more-prone-to-slippery-slope-thinking/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Conservatives are more prone to slippery slope thinking</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 10th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>New research suggests that individuals who identify as politically conservative are more likely than their liberal counterparts to find “slippery slope” arguments logically sound. This tendency appears to stem from a greater reliance on intuitive thinking styles rather than deliberate processing. The findings were published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672251391893" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a></em>.</p>
<p>Slippery slope arguments are a staple of rhetoric in law, ethics, and politics. These arguments suggest that a minor, seemingly harmless initial action will trigger a chain reaction leading to a catastrophic final outcome.</p>
<p>A classic example is the idea that eating one cookie will lead to eating ten, which will eventually result in significant weight gain. Despite the prevalence of this argumentative structure, psychological research has historically lacked a clear understanding of who finds these arguments persuasive.</p>
<p>“The most immediate motivation for this research was an observation that, despite being relatively common in everyday discussions and well-researched in philosophy and law, there is simply not much psychological research on slippery slope thinking and arguments,” explained study author <a href="https://www.rajenanderson.net/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rajen A. Anderson</a>, an assistant professor at Leeds University Business School.</p>
<p>“We thus started with some relatively basic questions: Why do people engage in this kind of thinking and are certain people more likely to agree with these kinds of arguments? We then focused on political ideology for two reasons: Politics is rife with slippery slope arguments, and existing psychological theories would suggest multiple possibilities for how political ideology relates to slippery slope thinking.”</p>
<p>Some theoretical models suggested that political extremists on both sides would favor these arguments due to cognitive rigidity and a preference for simplistic causal explanations. Other theories pointed toward liberals, citing their tendency to expand concept definitions to include a wider range of harms. A third perspective posited that conservatives might be most susceptible due to a general preference for intuition and a psychological aversion to uncertainty or change.</p>
<p>To investigate these competing hypotheses, the researchers conducted 15 separate studies involving diverse methodologies. The project included survey data, experimental manipulations, and natural language processing of social media content. The total sample size across these investigations included thousands of participants. The researchers recruited subjects from the United States, the Netherlands, Finland, and Chile to test whether the findings would generalize across different cultures and languages.</p>
<p>In the initial set of studies, the research team presented participants with a series of non-political slippery slope arguments. These vignettes described everyday scenarios, such as a person showing up late to work or breaking a diet. For instance, one scenario suggested that if a person skips washing dishes today, they will eventually stop cleaning their house entirely. Participants rated how logical they perceived these arguments to be. They also reported their political ideology on a scale ranging from liberal to conservative.</p>
<p>The results from these initial surveys revealed a consistent pattern. Individuals who identified as more conservative rated the slippery slope arguments as significantly more logical than those who identified as liberal. This association remained statistically significant even when the researchers controlled for demographic factors such as age and gender. The pattern held true in the international samples as well, indicating that the link between conservatism and slippery slope thinking is not unique to the political climate of the United States.</p>
<p>To assess how these cognitive tendencies manifest in real-world communication, the researchers analyzed over 57,000 comments from political subreddits. They collected data from communities dedicated to both Democratic and Republican viewpoints. The team utilized ChatGPT to code the comments for the presence of slippery slope reasoning.</p>
<p>This analysis showed that comments posted in conservative communities were more likely to exhibit slippery slope structures than those in liberal communities. Additionally, comments that utilized this style of argumentation tended to receive more approval, in the form of “upvotes,” from other users.</p>
<p>The researchers then sought to understand the psychological mechanism driving this effect. They hypothesized that the difference was rooted in how individuals process information. Conservative ideology has been linked in past research to “intuitive” thinking, which involves relying on gut feelings and immediate responses. Liberal ideology has been associated with “deliberative” thinking, which involves slower, more analytical processing.</p>
<p>To test this mechanism, the researchers measured participants’ tendencies toward intuitive versus deliberative thought. They found that intuitive thinking statistically mediated the relationship between conservatism and the endorsement of slippery slope arguments. This means that conservatives were more likely to accept these arguments largely because they were more likely to process the information intuitively.</p>
<p>In a subsequent experiment, the researchers manipulated how participants processed the arguments. They assigned one group of participants to a “deliberation” condition. In this condition, participants were instructed to think carefully about their answers. They were also forced to wait ten seconds before they could rate the logic of the argument. The control group received no such instructions and faced no time delay.</p>
<p>The data from this experiment provided evidence for the intuition hypothesis. When conservative participants were prompted to think deliberately and forced to slow down, their endorsement of slippery slope arguments decreased significantly. In fact, the gap between conservative and liberal ratings narrowed substantially in the deliberation condition. This suggests that the ideological difference is not necessarily a fixed trait but is influenced by the mode of thinking a person employs at the moment.</p>
<p>Another study investigated whether the structure of the argument itself mattered. The researchers presented some participants with a full slippery slope argument, including the intermediate steps between the initial action and the final disaster. Other participants viewed a “skipped step” version, where the initial action led immediately to the disaster without explanation.</p>
<p>The results showed that conservatives only rated the arguments as more logical when the intermediate steps were present. This indicates that the intuitive appeal of the argument relies on the plausibility of the causal chain.</p>
<p>Finally, the researchers examined the potential social consequences of this cognitive style. They asked participants about their support for punitive criminal justice policies, such as “three strikes” laws or mandatory minimum sentences.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that slippery slope thinking was a significant predictor of support for harsher sentencing. Individuals who believed that small negative actions lead to larger disasters were more likely to support severe punishment for offenders. This helps explain, in part, why conservatives often favor stricter criminal justice measures.</p>
<p>“Slippery slope thinking describes a particular kind of prediction: If a minor negative event occurs, do I think that worse events will follow? Our findings suggest that being more politically conservative is associated with engaging in more slippery slope thinking, based on a greater reliance on intuition: Slippery slope arguments are often intuitively appealing, and this intuitive appeal brings people in,” Anderson told PsyPost.</p>
<p>“If we change this reliance on intuition (e.g., encouraging people to think deliberately about the argument), then there’s less of an effect of politics. This political difference in slippery slope thinking has consequences for the kinds of arguments that people use on social media, and in how much they support harsher criminal sentencing policies.”</p>
<p>Most of the arguments used in the surveys were non-political in nature. This was a deliberate design choice to measure underlying cognitive styles without the interference of partisan bias regarding specific issues.</p>
<p>“We wanted to measure baseline tendencies to engage in slippery slope thinking in general, setting aside potential bias just from participants agreeing with the political message of an argument,” Anderson explained. “What this means is that, all else being equal, our results suggest that being more politically conservative corresponds to more slippery slope thinking.”</p>
<p>“What this does not mean is that conservatives will always endorse every slippery slope argument more than liberals will: It is very easy to create an argument that liberals will endorse more than conservatives, because the argument supports a conclusion that liberals will agree with.”</p>
<p>Future research could explore how these cognitive tendencies interact with specific political issues. Researchers might also examine whether interventions designed to reduce reliance on intuition could alter support for specific policies rooted in slippery slope logic.</p>
<p>The current work provides a baseline for understanding how differing cognitive styles contribute to political disagreements. It suggests that political polarization is not merely a disagreement over facts but also a divergence in how groups intuitively predict the consequences of human behavior.</p>
<p>“One potential misinterpretation is that readers may think that slippery slope thinking is illogical or irrational (since that’s often how slippery slope thinking is talked about), and thus we are saying that conservatives are more illogical or irrational than liberals,” Anderson added. “To be direct, we are not saying that.”</p>
<p>“How logical or illogical a slippery slope argument is depends on the specific steps of the argument: If A happens, what’s the probability that B will follow? If B happens, what’s the probability that C will follow? etc. If the probabilities are high, then slippery slope thinking is more “logical”; If the probabilities are low, then slippery slope thinking is less “logical”. In fact, there <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0036950" target="_blank" rel="noopener">is some research</a> to suggest that dishonest behavior sometimes does look like a slippery slope.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672251391893" target="_blank" rel="noopener">‘And the Next Thing You Know . . .’: Ideological Differences in Slippery Slope Thinking</a>,” was authored by Rajen A. Anderson, Daan Scheepers, and Benjamin C. Ruisch.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/childhood-trauma-linked-to-worse-outcomes-in-mindfulness-therapy-for-depression/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Childhood trauma linked to worse outcomes in mindfulness therapy for depression</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 9th 2025, 20:00</div>
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<p><p>New research published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318499" target="_blank" rel="noopener">PLOS One</a></em> finds that childhood trauma may worsen outcomes and increase risks in mindfulness meditation programs designed for managing depression.</p>
<p>Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) was originally developed to prevent relapse in people who had recovered from depression. It combines meditation practices with cognitive therapy techniques. Over time, MBCT and similar mindfulness-based programs have been offered to people experiencing active depression. While many participants report improvements, researchers have begun to notice that not everyone responds in the same way.</p>
<p>Previous studies hinted that childhood trauma might influence how well mindfulness programs work. In some cases, trauma survivors benefited more from MBCT when it was used to prevent relapse. But when treating active depression, the picture was less clear. Some participants with trauma histories struggled to improve, and reports of meditation-related adverse effects – such as anxiety, panic, or traumatic memories resurfacing – raised concerns.</p>
<p>A research team at Brown University in Rhode Island set out to explore this gap. Led by Nicholas K. Canby, they conducted two clinical trials. The first involved 52 participants (average age 47 yrs, 79% female), while the second included 104 (average age 40 yrs, 74% female). All participants had symptoms of depression, and some had past or subclinical post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).</p>
<p>In the first study, participants were randomized to an MBCT program or a waitlist control group. In the second study, participants were assigned to standard MBCT, focused attention meditation, or open monitoring practices</p>
<p>“The MBCT module followed the standard session-by-session manual, while the [focused attention meditation] and [open monitoring practices] curriculums emphasized specific forms of meditation that are both present in standard MBCT,” Canby and colleagues explained.</p>
<p>Researchers measured depression symptoms before and after treatment, tracked dropout rates, and asked participants about any unexpected or unpleasant experiences during meditation.</p>
<p>Across both studies, childhood trauma predicted worse depression outcomes. In particular, childhood sexual abuse consistently emerged as a strong predictor of poor depression outcomes across both studies, and was significantly linked to higher dropout rates in the larger second study.</p>
<p>Emotional neglect and emotional abuse were also linked to less improvement in depression symptoms. Participants with trauma histories were more likely to report meditation-related side effects, ranging from vivid imagery and heightened anxiety to dissociation and emotional blunting. Some described feeling trapped or overwhelmed during body-focused meditation practices, which triggered memories of past abuse.</p>
<p>The authors concluded, “childhood trauma predicts poorer outcomes in MBCT treatment for active depression yet better outcomes when MBCT is used as a relapse prevention program in remitted individuals who are not currently depressed.”</p>
<p>Canby and colleagues emphasize that meditation is not inherently harmful, but that trauma survivors may need additional support or modifications to standard programs. For example, shorter meditation sessions, smaller group sizes, or trauma-informed guidance could help reduce risks.</p>
<p>The study does have limitations. The participants were mostly female, white, and highly educated, meaning the findings may not apply to all groups. Additionally, one of the trials lacked a non-meditation control group, making it harder to determine whether the negative outcomes were specific to mindfulness or part of a broader treatment challenge.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318499" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Childhood trauma and subclinical PTSD symptoms predict adverse effects and worse outcomes across two mindfulness-based programs for active depression</a>,” was authored by Nicholas K. Canby, Elizabeth A. Cosby, Roman Palitsky, Deanna M. Kaplan, Josie Lee, Golnoosh Mahdavi, Adrian A. Lopez, Roberta E. Goldman, Kristina Eichel, Jared R. Lindahl, and Willoughby B. Britton.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/semaglutide-helps-manage-metabolic-side-effects-of-antipsychotic-drugs/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Semaglutide helps manage metabolic side effects of antipsychotic drugs</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 9th 2025, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>Recent clinical research indicates that semaglutide may effectively reverse weight gain and blood sugar issues caused by certain antipsychotic medications. A randomized trial demonstrated that patients taking this drug experienced weight loss and improved metabolic health compared to those receiving a placebo. These findings were published in <em><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2842202" target="_blank">JAMA Psychiatry</a></em>.</p>
<p>People diagnosed with schizophrenia face a reduced life expectancy compared to the general population. This gap is estimated to be approximately fifteen years. The primary driver of this early mortality is not the psychiatric condition itself but rather cardiovascular disease. High rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes are common in this group. These physical health issues stem from a combination of lifestyle factors and genetic predispositions.</p>
<p>A major contributing factor to poor physical health is the treatment for the mental illness itself. Antipsychotic medications are essential for managing the symptoms of schizophrenia. However, they frequently cause severe side effects related to metabolism. Patients often experience rapid weight gain and disruptions in how their bodies process glucose.</p>
<p>Two specific medications, clozapine and olanzapine, are known to carry the highest risk for these metabolic problems. These drugs are classified as second-generation antipsychotics. Despite these risks, they remain vital tools for psychiatrists. Clozapine is often the only effective option for patients who do not respond to other treatments.</p>
<p>Doctors face a difficult dilemma when treating these patients. Switching a patient off clozapine to improve their physical health can lead to a relapse of psychosis. Consequently, physicians often attempt to manage the side effects with additional medications. Common strategies include prescribing metformin or topiramate to control weight and blood sugar.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, these add-on treatments often provide only limited benefits. Patients might lose a small amount of weight, but it is rarely enough to reverse the risk of diabetes or heart disease. There is a pressing need for therapies that can powerfully counteract metabolic side effects without interfering with psychiatric care. This need drove the current research effort.</p>
<p>The study was led by Marie R. Sass from the Mental Health Center Copenhagen in Denmark. She worked alongside a large team of researchers from Danish institutions and the Zucker Hillside Hospital in New York. They sought to determine if newer diabetes drugs could offer a better solution. Specifically, they investigated a class of drugs known as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, or GLP-1RAs.</p>
<p>Semaglutide is a well-known medication in this class. It mimics a hormone that regulates appetite and insulin secretion. Regulatory bodies have approved it for treating type 2 diabetes and obesity. The researchers hypothesized that it could protect patients with schizophrenia from the metabolic damage caused by their antipsychotic regimen.</p>
<p>The research team designed a rigorous experiment to test this theory. They conducted a multicenter, double-blind, randomized clinical trial. This design is considered the gold standard for medical research. It minimizes bias by ensuring neither the doctors nor the patients know who is receiving the real drug.</p>
<p>The trial included 73 adult participants. All participants had been diagnosed with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Each participant had started treatment with either clozapine or olanzapine within the previous five years. This criterion focused the study on the early stages of metabolic disruption.</p>
<p>The researchers screened these individuals for signs of blood sugar problems. Participants had to show evidence of prediabetes or early-stage diabetes to qualify. They were then randomly assigned to two groups. One group received a weekly injection of semaglutide, while the other received a placebo injection.</p>
<p>The trial lasted for 26 weeks. During this time, the researchers gradually increased the dose of semaglutide to a target of 1 milligram. This is a standard dose for diabetes management. The team monitored the participants closely for changes in health markers and side effects.</p>
<p>The primary goal was to measure changes in hemoglobin A1c levels. Hemoglobin A1c is a blood test that reflects average blood sugar levels over the past three months. It provides a more stable picture of metabolic health than a single daily glucose test. The researchers also tracked body weight and waist circumference.</p>
<p>The results showed a distinct advantage for the group receiving the medication. Semaglutide reduced hemoglobin A1c levels compared to the placebo. The magnitude of the improvement was clinically significant. This suggests a substantial reduction in the risk of developing full-blown diabetes.</p>
<p>The data revealed that 43 percent of the individuals treated with semaglutide achieved what doctors call “low-risk” blood sugar levels. In comparison, only 3 percent of the placebo group reached this healthy range. This stark difference highlights the drug’s efficacy. It effectively normalized glucose metabolism for nearly half of the treated patients.</p>
<p>Weight loss results were equally distinct. After adjusting for the effects of the placebo, the semaglutide group lost an average of 9.2 kilograms, or about 20 pounds. This physical change was accompanied by a reduction in waist size. The average reduction in waist circumference was approximately 7 centimeters.</p>
<p>The study also examined body composition in greater detail. The researchers found that the weight loss was primarily due to a reduction in fat mass. This is a positive outcome, as muscle loss can be a concern with rapid weight reduction. The reduction in total body fat suggests a genuine improvement in physical health.</p>
<p>Safety was a primary concern throughout the trial. The researchers needed to ensure that semaglutide would not interfere with the antipsychotic medications. They found that psychiatric symptoms did not worsen in the group taking semaglutide. Hospitalization rates for psychiatric reasons were low and similar in both groups.</p>
<p>Physical side effects were consistent with what is known about GLP-1 receptor agonists. The most common complaints were gastrointestinal issues. Nausea, vomiting, and constipation were reported more frequently in the semaglutide group. These side effects are typical for this class of drugs and often subside over time.</p>
<p>One participant in the semaglutide group died of sudden cardiac death shortly after the trial concluded. An autopsy was performed to investigate the cause. The medical examiners determined that the death was not related to the semaglutide treatment. Serious adverse events were otherwise balanced between the two groups.</p>
<p>The researchers also looked at secondary outcomes unrelated to weight. One finding involved nicotine use. Smoking rates are historically very high among people with schizophrenia. The study data suggested that semaglutide might reduce nicotine dependence.</p>
<p>Participants who smoked and took semaglutide had lower scores on a test measuring nicotine dependence compared to the placebo group. This aligns with emerging theories that GLP-1 drugs may influence reward pathways in the brain. It raises the possibility that these drugs could help treat addiction. However, the researchers noted this was an exploratory finding.</p>
<p>There were limitations to what the study could determine regarding other organs. The team did not see significant changes in liver function or cholesterol levels. This might be because the participants were relatively young and their metabolic problems were in the early stages. It is also possible that the 1 milligram dose was not high enough to alter lipid profiles significantly.</p>
<p>The dose used in this study is lower than the 2.4 milligram dose often prescribed specifically for weight loss in the general population. The researchers suggest that higher doses might yield even greater benefits. Longer trials would be necessary to confirm this. The 26-week duration was relatively short in the context of lifelong chronic illness.</p>
<p>The demographics of the study population also present a limitation. The majority of participants were White. This limits the ability to generalize the findings to other racial and ethnic groups who may have different metabolic risk profiles. Future studies will need to be more inclusive to ensure the treatment is effective for everyone.</p>
<p>Another challenge mentioned is the cost and accessibility of these medications. GLP-1 receptor agonists are currently expensive. This presents a barrier for many patients with severe mental illness who rely on public health systems. The authors argue that preventing diabetes and heart disease could save money in the long run.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2842202" target="_blank">Semaglutide and Early-Stage Metabolic Abnormalities in Individuals With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders A Randomized Clinical Trial</a>,” was authored by Marie R. Sass, Mette Kruse Klausen,Christine R. Schwarz, Line Rasmussen, Malte E. B. Giver, Malthe Hviid, Christoffer Schilling, Alexandra Zamorski,Andreas Jensen, Maria Gefke, Heidi Storgaard, Peter S. Oturai, Andreas Kjaer, Bolette Hartmann, Jens J. Holst, Claus T. Ekstrøm, Maj Vinberg,Christoph U. Correll, Tina Vilsbøll, and Anders Fink-Jensen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/supportive-marriage-linked-to-lower-obesity-risk-through-novel-brain-gut-pathway/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Supportive marriage linked to lower obesity risk through novel brain-gut pathway</a>
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<p><p>A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2025.2566978" target="_blank">Gut Microbes</a></em> provides evidence that supportive social relationships may influence physical health through specific biological pathways involving the brain and the gut. The findings suggest that high-quality marital bonds are associated with lower body mass index and healthier eating behaviors, potentially regulated by the hormone oxytocin and its interaction with the microbiome.</p>
<p>Social isolation is often recognized as a significant risk factor for various health issues, with some data suggesting its impact on mortality is comparable to smoking or physical inactivity. While statistical associations between relationships and health outcomes are well-documented, the biological mechanisms driving these effects remain less clear. Science has not fully explained how intangible social dynamics translate into tangible physical changes like weight regulation or metabolic health.</p>
<p>Previous work indicates that the hormone oxytocin plays a role in social bonding and appetite regulation. Simultaneously, the communication system between the brain and the gut microbiome is known to influence obesity. The authors of the current study aimed to bridge these distinct areas of research. They sought to determine if social relationships physically alter the body through an integrated pathway connecting oxytocin, brain activity related to food cravings, and gut metabolites.</p>
<p>The research team recruited 94 participants from the Los Angeles community. The group included adults of various ages and racial backgrounds, though most participants had a body mass index classifying them as overweight or having obesity. The researchers collected a wide array of data to capture both psychological and biological profiles.</p>
<p>Participants provided information about their marital status and completed the Brief Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced scale. This assessment measured their perceived levels of emotional support. The team categorized emotional support based on whether participants felt they received comfort and understanding from others.</p>
<p>To measure biological responses, the team utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging. This allowed them to observe brain activity while participants viewed images of food compared to non-food control images. The researchers also collected fecal samples to analyze the gut microbiome and specific metabolites derived from tryptophan. Additionally, plasma oxytocin levels were measured from blood samples in a subset of 77 participants.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed complex interactions between marital status and emotional support. Being married was not automatically associated with better health outcomes on its own. Instead, married individuals who also reported high levels of emotional support exhibited significantly lower body mass index compared to married individuals reporting low support. This difference in body mass index based on emotional support levels was not observed among unmarried participants.</p>
<p>The brain imaging data offered insights into how these social factors might influence eating behaviors. Married participants with high emotional support showed greater activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex when viewing food cues. This region of the brain is typically associated with executive control, planning, and the inhibition of cravings.</p>
<p>The findings indicate that supportive partnerships may bolster the neural circuits required to resist unhealthy food impulses. Lead author Dr. Arpana Church noted that maintaining a long-term partnership requires overriding impulses and aligning with long-term goals. This process may strengthen the same brain circuits involved in managing eating behavior.</p>
<p>Analysis of the fecal samples showed that social factors were associated with levels of tryptophan metabolites. Tryptophan is an amino acid that the body processes into various compounds. Some of these compounds support health, while others can be harmful.</p>
<p>Perceived emotional support was linked to higher levels of compounds like indole and indole-3-carboxylate. These metabolites are generally considered beneficial for their roles in reducing inflammation and protecting nerve function. Conversely, lower support was linked to higher levels of 3-indoxyl sulfate, a compound often associated with negative health outcomes and inflammation.</p>
<p>The study also found a marginal association where married individuals tended to have higher levels of plasma oxytocin. Oxytocin is a peptide hormone often implicated in social bonding and stress regulation. It has also been shown to reduce food intake and dampen activation in brain regions associated with food motivation.</p>
<p>Using a statistical method called structural equation modeling, the researchers proposed a unified pathway. The model suggests that positive social relations may upregulate oxytocin. This upregulation appears to coordinate with enhanced brain regulation of cravings and a healthier metabolic profile in the gut.</p>
<p>Collectively, these biological alterations contribute to reduced obesity risk. The model indicates a system where the brain and the gut communicate to regulate health, with social bonds acting as a primary influence. This supports the idea that obesity is not solely a result of diet and metabolism but is also shaped by social and neurobiological factors.</p>
<p>The results challenge oversimplified views about marriage and weight. They highlight that the quality of the relationship is a determining factor. The protective benefits regarding metabolism and self-control were most pronounced among married participants who endorsed greater emotional support.</p>
<p>There are some limitations. The study used a cross-sectional design, meaning it captured data at a single point in time rather than following participants over years. This design prevents definitive conclusions regarding cause and effect, as it is possible that health status influences social relationships.</p>
<p>The researchers suggest that future work should aim to replicate these findings in larger, more diverse groups. Longitudinal studies would be necessary to track how changes in relationship quality influence biological markers over time. Investigating other metabolite pathways beyond tryptophan could also provide a more comprehensive picture.</p>
<p>These findings open potential avenues for obesity prevention and treatment. They imply that interventions focusing on diet and exercise alone may be incomplete. Incorporating strategies to build strong, positive social relationships could be a necessary component of holistic health care.</p>
<p>Therapies that target the oxytocin system or the gut microbiome might also prove useful for individuals lacking strong social support. For example, probiotics or dietary changes that influence tryptophan metabolism could potentially mimic some of the protective benefits observed in the study.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the research emphasizes that humans are inherently social beings. The study provides biological evidence that social connections are not just emotionally fulfilling but are deeply embedded in physical physiology. Positive bonds appear to act as a buffer against obesity by reinforcing the body’s natural regulatory systems in the brain and the gut.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2025.2566978" target="_blank">Social bonds and health: exploring the impact of social relations on oxytocin and brain–gut communication in shaping obesity</a>,” was authored by Xiaobei Zhang, Tien S. Dong, Gilbert C. Gee, Lisa A. Kilpatrick, Hiram Beltran-Sanchez, May C. Wang, Allison Vaughan, and Arpana Church.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/ai-can-change-political-opinions-by-flooding-voters-with-real-and-fabricated-facts/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">AI can change political opinions by flooding voters with real and fabricated facts</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 9th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>Artificial intelligence chatbots can alter human beliefs on political candidates and controversial policies, often outperforming traditional methods like television advertisements. Two new large-scale studies published in the journals <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aea3884" target="_blank">Science</a></em> and <em><a href="http://persuading%20voters%20using%20human%E2%80%93artificial%20intelligence%20dialogues" target="_blank">Nature</a></em> demonstrate that these systems achieve this influence by overwhelming users with factual—and sometimes fabricated—information rather than by tailoring arguments to an individual’s personality. </p>
<p>Policy experts and social scientists have debated whether large language models might serve as tools for mass indoctrination or radicalization. Previous research into political advertising often indicated that voter preferences are stubborn and difficult to shift during high-stakes campaigns. It was largely unknown whether the interactive nature of generative AI would differ from static media in its ability to penetrate these psychological defenses.</p>
<p>To investigate this, two separate international teams orchestrated massive experiments involving tens of thousands of participants across four countries. One investigation was led by Kobi Hackenburg, a researcher at the University of Oxford, who sought to dismantle the specific mechanical levers that make AI convincing. The other team was led by Hause Lin, a cognitive scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who focused on testing the practical impact of AI during active election cycles.</p>
<p>Lin and his colleagues recruited thousands of voters in the United States, Canada, and Poland to engage in text-based debates with an automated system. In the American experiment conducted prior to the 2024 election, participants discussed their views on Donald Trump and Kamala Harris. The researchers aimed to determine if the interactive nature of AI could succeed where passive media often fails.</p>
<p>The results demonstrated that a short conversation lasting roughly six minutes could shift voter preferences by significant margins. In the U.S. trials, the chatbot successfully moved support by nearly four points on a one-hundred-point scale. This effect size is considerably larger than what political strategists typically observe from standard video advertisements or digital flyers.</p>
<p>These shifts in opinion occurred even among participants with strong partisan identities. The artificial agents were particularly effective at softening the views of opposition voters, such as persuading Trump supporters to view Harris more favorably. This challenges the assumption that political polarization renders voters immune to opposing arguments.</p>
<p>Lin’s team re-contacted participants weeks later to determine if the effects were temporary. They found that approximately one-third of the initial shift in opinion persisted over time. This indicates that the interactions left a durable impression on voter attitudes rather than a fleeting emotional reaction.</p>
<p>International trials mirrored these results. Experiments conducted during election seasons in Canada and Poland showed that the persuasive power of AI is robust across different cultures and languages. When the researchers stripped the chatbots of their ability to use facts and evidence, their persuasive power dropped by more than half.</p>
<p>The study led by Lin also tested persuasion on a specific policy issue regarding a ballot measure to legalize psychedelic drugs in Massachusetts. This topic was less polarized along party lines than the presidential race. In this context, the artificial intelligence achieved even stronger results.</p>
<p>When the chatbot advocated for the measure, support among skeptics jumped by nearly fifteen points. Conversely, when the system argued against legalization, support among proponents dropped considerably. This implies AI may be especially powerful in local elections or single-issue campaigns where voters have less entrenched identities.</p>
<p>While Lin’s group examined electoral outcomes, Hackenburg and his team focused on the technical factors that drive persuasion. They coordinated a massive investigation involving nearly 77,000 participants in the United Kingdom. These individuals debated one of 707 different political issues ranging from healthcare to national security.</p>
<p>Hackenburg’s study tested 19 different language models to isolate the specific features that change minds. The data confirmed that engaging in a back-and-forth dialogue is substantially more effective than simply reading a static argument. The interactive element appears essential for breaking down user resistance.</p>
<p>A common hypothesis in the tech industry suggests that personalization is the ultimate tool for manipulation. However, Hackenburg found that tailoring arguments to a user’s age or political background provided only a negligible boost in effectiveness. Instead, the most potent strategy was “information density.”</p>
<p>The models became most convincing when they flooded the conversation with statistics, facts, and citations. This approach outperformed emotional appeals or moral reframing. The sheer volume of perceived evidence seemed to overwhelm the user’s ability to counter-argue.</p>
<p>The research also highlighted the importance of how a model is trained after its initial creation. Hackenburg used a technique called reward modeling to teach smaller systems to prioritize persuasive responses. A standard model running on modest hardware could match the persuasive capability of an advanced system like GPT-4 through this specialized fine-tuning.</p>
<p>Both studies uncovered a troubling relationship between persuasion and truth. The analysis in Hackenburg’s paper revealed that as models were optimized to be more persuasive, they became less factually accurate. When GPT-4 was prompted to win an argument at all costs, it began to hallucinate or fabricate information to support its case.</p>
<p>The study by Lin identified a similar pattern involving political bias. Researchers found that models advocating for right-wing candidates produced more false statements than those arguing for left-wing candidates. This asymmetry occurred even though the system received identical instructions to remain factual for both sides.</p>
<p>For instance, a model might falsely claim a candidate had a consistent record on an issue when they had actually flipped positions. It might also attribute economic data to the wrong administration to make a point. This happened regardless of which specific AI model the researchers tested.</p>
<p>This suggests that current language models may reflect biases or inaccuracies present in their training data. It also indicates a structural flaw where the goal of winning an argument competes with the goal of being truthful. The systems naturally drifted toward misleading claims when pressed to be convincing.</p>
<p>The researchers emphasize that accuracy did not seem to correlate with persuasiveness in their models. The bots that lied more were not necessarily more effective at changing minds. However, the prevalence of misinformation in generated text remains a technical hurdle.</p>
<p>The authors of both papers note specific limitations to their work. The experiments relied on survey participants who were compensated to engage with the AI. This setting differs from the chaotic environment of social media where users might simply ignore a chatbot.</p>
<p>Future research must determine if these persuasive effects hold true when users encounter automated accounts in the wild. It remains unclear whether hostile voters would willingly enter a six-minute debate with a stranger outside of a controlled study. Additionally, the challenge of ensuring AI adherence to strict truthfulness remains unsolved.</p>
<p>Regulatory bodies face the difficult task of managing this capability without stifling technology. The findings imply that restricting access to the largest models may be insufficient, as smaller open-source models can be fine-tuned for high persuasion. Ensuring transparency about when a voter is conversing with a machine will be a priority for maintaining the integrity of public discourse.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aea3884" target="_blank">The levers of political persuasion with conversational artificial intelligence</a>,” was authored by Kobi Hackenburg, Ben M. Tappin, Luke Hewitt, Ed Saunders, Sid Black, Hause Lin, Catherine Fist, Helen Margetts, David G. Rand, and Christopher Summerfield.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="http://persuading%20voters%20using%20human%E2%80%93artificial%20intelligence%20dialogues" target="_blank">Persuading voters using human–artificial intelligence dialogues</a>,” was authored by Hause Lin, Gabriela Czarnek, Benjamin Lewis, Joshua P. White, Adam J. Berinsky, Thomas Costello, Gordon Pennycook, and David G. Rand.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/frequent-cannabis-use-rose-among-california-teens-after-legalization/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Frequent cannabis use rose among California teens after legalization</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 9th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A study in California found that cannabis use became more frequent among 11<sup>th</sup> graders in California after recreational cannabis retail was legalized. Eleventh graders in cities with no cannabis shops at all, neither recreational nor medical ones, tended to use cannabis less often compared to their peers in places where cannabis stores were allowed. The paper was published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2025.09.003"><em>Journal of Adolescent Health</em></a>.</p>
<p>Cannabis is a plant genus whose flowers and leaves contain psychoactive compounds called cannabinoids, the most notable being THC and CBD. It has been used for thousands of years for medicinal, recreational, and industrial purposes. When consumed, cannabis can alter perception, mood, and cognition by interacting with the brain’s endocannabinoid system. Although widely used, cannabis remains regulated or illegal in many parts of the world due to concerns about health, safety, and dependence.</p>
<p>In California, personal possession and cultivation of cannabis were legalized in 2016. In 2018, recreational cannabis retail was legalized as well. However, local jurisdictions retained the right to prohibit cannabis retail sales in their areas. By January 2024, 59% of Californian jurisdictions allowed legal cannabis retail sales (while 41% did not).</p>
<p>Shops legally selling cannabis are called cannabis dispensaries. Cannabis dispensaries sell various cannabis products—such as dried flower, edibles, oils, and concentrates—for non-medical, adult use legally in jurisdictions that permit this. These stores operate under strict government regulations that control licensing, age limits, product testing, packaging, and taxation. Usually, retailers must follow rules about advertising, security, and responsible sales practices. One of the greatest concerns of legalizing recreational cannabis retail is the potential impact on youth use and subsequent harms. In adolescence, the brain develops quickly and is very susceptible to adverse health effects, including those that could be associated with cannabis use.</p>
<p>Study author Bethany J. Simard and her colleagues wanted to explore the changes in cannabis use among California 11<sup>th</sup> graders before and after the statewide legalization of recreational cannabis retail. They also wanted to see whether these changes differ according to the cannabis policy applied by the local jurisdiction.</p>
<p>The study authors analyzed data from the California Healthy Kids Survey collected in multiple waves between 2015 and 2020. It is an annual survey of 7<sup>th</sup>, 9<sup>th</sup>, and 11<sup>th</sup> grade students conducted by the California Department of Education. Among other things, the survey asked participating students about cannabis use.</p>
<p>More specifically, it asked how many days in the past 30 days they used “marijuana (pot, weed, grass, hash, or bud)” in 2015/16—2016/17 and “marijuana (smoke, vape, eat, or drink)” for years 2017/18—2019/20. Study authors also took into account cannabis retail policies in the jurisdiction where each participating student’s school was located.</p>
<p>Results showed that the odds that a student would report any use of cannabis in the past 30 days increased by 6% immediately after legalization. This happened in all jurisdictions except in those allowing medical delivery only; in those jurisdictions, the odds that students would report use in the past 30 days slightly decreased. However, regarding frequent use (20 or more days a month), the increase was much sharper: by spring 2020, the odds of frequent use were 30% higher.</p>
<p>The odds of recent cannabis use and frequent cannabis use were lower in jurisdictions that banned both recreational cannabis retail and that did not allow medical cannabis stores before legalization compared to jurisdictions that allowed storefronts. In other words, 11<sup>th</sup> graders in cities with no cannabis shops at all, neither recreational nor earlier medical ones, tended to use cannabis less often compared to their peers in places where cannabis stores were allowed.</p>
<p>“Frequent cannabis use among California 11th graders increased post-RCR legalization [after recreational cannabis retail legalization]. After an increase in any 30-day use, use in retail-banning jurisdictions declined, whereas rates in jurisdictions newly permitting storefronts and delivery remained raised,” study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study sheds light on the changes in cannabis use associated with the legalization of recreational cannabis retail. However, it should be noted that the study took into account cannabis policies in locations of schools, not in places where students’ homes are located. It also did not take into account cannabis policies in neighboring jurisdictions.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2025.09.003">Local Cannabis Policy and Cannabis Use by California High School Students Before and After Statewide Retail Legalization,</a>” was authored by Bethany J. Simard, Alisa A. Padon, Lynn D. Silver, David S. Timberlake, and Kelly C. Young-Wolff.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-neuroscience-research-reveals-surprising-biological-link-between-beauty-and-brain-energy/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New neuroscience research reveals surprising biological link between beauty and brain energy</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 9th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>New research suggests that the human appreciation for beauty may be rooted in biological frugality. A study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf347" target="_blank">PNAS Nexus</a></em> indicates that images requiring less energy for the brain to process are perceived as more aesthetically pleasing. These findings imply that our visual preferences may serve as an evolutionary mechanism to conserve metabolic resources.</p>
<p>The human brain is an exceptionally expensive organ to maintain. It accounts for only a small fraction of total body mass. Yet, it consumes roughly 20 percent of the body’s daily energy reserves. This metabolic demand places a constant pressure on the organism to manage its resources.</p>
<p>A massive portion of this fuel is dedicated to a single sense. The visual system alone is responsible for approximately 44 percent of the brain’s energy expenditure. Consequently, simply looking at the world is a metabolically heavy task. Every scene we view triggers cascades of electrical and chemical activity that require glucose and oxygen to sustain.</p>
<p>Evolutionary theory suggests that organisms adapt to avoid wasting energy. It is logical that biological systems would develop strategies to encourage efficiency. One proposed solution is the use of affective heuristics. These are mental shortcuts that use feelings, such as pleasure, to guide decision-making.</p>
<p>If a specific action saves energy, the brain might reward the individual with a positive feeling. This reward encourages the organism to repeat the efficient behavior. Researchers have hypothesized that this principle applies to vision. They proposed that we might find certain images beautiful simply because they are easy to process.</p>
<p>Yikai Tang, William A. Cunningham, and Dirk B. Walther from the University of Toronto sought to test this idea. They investigated whether the idiom “easy on the eyes” reflects a physiological reality. Their central hypothesis was that aesthetic liking is inversely related to the metabolic cost of neural representations. In other words, if an image costs less to see, we should like it more.</p>
<p>To test this hypothesis, the authors employed a two-pronged approach. They first utilized a computational model to simulate the mechanics of the visual system. Computer simulations allow researchers to isolate specific processes without the noise of human psychology. They utilized a deep convolutional neural network known as VGG-19.</p>
<p>This artificial intelligence program was trained to categorize objects and scenes. Its architecture is designed to mimic the hierarchical layers of the human visual cortex. The researchers presented the model with nearly 5,000 distinct images of real-world objects and scenes. These images varied widely in content.</p>
<p>For every image, the team calculated a specific “metabolic cost” for the computer model. They defined this cost based on the activity of the artificial neurons. A unit within the network was considered active if its output value was greater than zero.</p>
<p>The researchers counted the total number of active neurons required to represent each image. They also calculated the sum of the activation intensities. An image that triggered a large number of neurons was deemed expensive. An image that triggered fewer units was considered efficient.</p>
<p>The authors then compared these machine-generated cost estimates to human opinions. They utilized a dataset of aesthetic ratings collected from over 1,000 participants. These individuals had rated how much they enjoyed looking at the same images used in the computer simulation.</p>
<p>A distinct pattern emerged from the comparison. The researchers found a negative correlation between the model’s energy cost and human enjoyment. Images that required fewer active neurons in the artificial network received higher aesthetic ratings from people. As the processing cost decreased, the reported pleasure increased.</p>
<p>To ensure this result was not a coincidence, the team ran the same test on untrained neural networks. These were models with the same structure but no experience in recognizing objects. These random networks did not show the same pattern. This difference suggests that the preference for efficiency arises from the specific way a system learns to structure visual information.</p>
<p>While the computer model provided a strong proof of concept, it remained a simulation. The authors needed to verify that biological brains operate under the same principles. To do this, they analyzed brain imaging data from four human participants. These individuals viewed the large set of images while inside an MRI scanner.</p>
<p>The researchers utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging. This technology tracks changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain. When neurons in a specific region fire, they deplete local oxygen supplies. Fresh, oxygenated blood then rushes in to replenish the area.</p>
<p>This distinct signal, known as the BOLD signal, serves as a proxy for metabolic energy use. A stronger signal indicates that the brain is working harder and burning more fuel. The researchers focused their analysis on specific regions of the brain dedicated to visual processing.</p>
<p>They examined the early visual cortex, which handles basic features like edges and contrast. They also looked at higher-level areas responsible for recognizing complete scenes, faces, and objects. The results from the human scans aligned with the findings from the artificial intelligence model.</p>
<p>In nearly all the visual areas examined, higher metabolic activity correlated with lower aesthetic ratings. When the visual cortex had to work harder to encode an image, the participant reported enjoying it less. This relationship was notably stronger in the high-level regions that process complex scene information.</p>
<p>The authors interpret these findings as evidence of an energy-conservation heuristic. The visual system seems to aim for a “sweet spot.” It requires enough stimulation to be interesting, but it penalizes excessive cost. The images we perceive as most attractive appear to be those that provide rich information without demanding a heavy metabolic toll.</p>
<p>This concept aligns with the “processing fluency” theory in psychology. This theory posits that information that is processed faster and more easily elicits a positive emotional response. The current study grounds this psychological concept in the physical reality of energy consumption.</p>
<p>The researchers also noted a distinction in other brain areas. While visual processing areas preferred efficiency, the Default Mode Network showed a different pattern. This network is often associated with self-reflection and daydreaming. In these regions, higher activity sometimes correlated with higher enjoyment.</p>
<p>This suggests that while the visual machinery prefers ease, the cognitive parts of the brain may enjoy engagement. However, the study emphasizes that the primary visual intake favors low-energy states. The “beauty” detected by our eyes is largely a signal of efficiency.</p>
<p>There are limitations to how broadly these findings can be applied. The study focused on rapid visual processing. Participants gave quick ratings of their initial impressions. This setup does not capture the deeper appreciation that comes from contemplating complex art.</p>
<p>Looking at a blank white wall is extremely energy-efficient. Yet, most people would find it boring rather than beautiful. The authors acknowledge that a stimulus must meet a baseline level of interest. The efficiency principle likely operates only after that baseline of necessary stimulation is met.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the “boredom” factor was not the primary variable manipulated in this study. The researchers focused on the positive-habituation component of aesthetic preference. Future work would need to disentangle the effects of simplicity versus boredom.</p>
<p>The authors also point out that context matters. In a museum, a viewer might expend effort to understand a difficult painting. In that specific context, the cognitive reward of understanding might outweigh the visual cost. The current study captured a more automatic, default mode of viewing.</p>
<p>Directions for future research include testing for causality. The current study establishes a correlation. The researchers suggest manipulating images to specifically alter their metabolic cost. Observing if this manipulation directly changes aesthetic ratings would strengthen the causal link.</p>
<p>They also propose investigating other sensory modalities. It is possible that the auditory system operates on a similar budget. If so, “easy listening” might be the auditory equivalent of the visual efficiency observed here.</p>
<p>In summary, this research provides physical evidence for a biological basis of beauty. It suggests that our aesthetic sense is not merely a product of culture or personal taste. It is also a practical mechanism for energy management. We are drawn to visual experiences that are kind to our metabolic budget.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf347" target="_blank">Less is more: Aesthetic liking is inversely related to metabolic expense by the visual system</a>,” was authored by Yikai Tang, William A. Cunningham, and Dirk B. Walther.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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