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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/do-feminine-body-traits-predict-womens-reproductive-success-the-evidence-is-lacking/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Do feminine body traits predict women’s reproductive success? The evidence is lacking</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 8th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A new scientific review challenges the widespread idea that certain physical features in women serve as biological signals of high fertility. The comprehensive analysis suggests that characteristics often described as feminine, such as a specific waist-to-hip ratio or voice pitch, do not reliably predict how many children a woman will have. These findings appear in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2025.10026" target="_blank">Evolutionary Human Sciences</a></em>.</p>
<p>Evolutionary biology often distinguishes between male and female physical traits within a species. Beyond the primary reproductive organs, humans exhibit differences in body fat distribution, voice pitch, and facial structure. Women, on average, possess a lower waist-to-hip ratio and a higher voice pitch than men. They also tend to have distinct facial features, such as fuller lips and smaller chins.</p>
<p>A common explanation for these differences involves sexual selection. This perspective proposes that men evolved preferences for specific female traits because those traits indicate high reproductive potential. If this hypothesis is correct, women with more pronounced feminine features should biologically be capable of producing more offspring. This concept suggests that beauty standards may have roots in biological utility.</p>
<p>“Evolutionary researchers have long suggested that heterosexual men are attracted to ‘feminine’ traits in women – like feminine facial features, a curvy body, and a narrow waist – because these traits might signal higher fertility,” said study author Linda Lidborg, a postdoctoral research associate at Durham University. </p>
<p>“Similar patterns have been proposed in men for masculine traits, though in men testosterone and other factors are thought to play a role for different evolutionary reasons. A few years ago, we studied the link between masculine traits and fertility in men; this new review systematically examines whether women with more feminine traits actually show higher fertility than less feminine women.”</p>
<p>The researchers searched major scientific databases for studies that measured specific physical traits in women and compared them to direct fertility measures. Their review focused on actual reproductive outcomes. These measures included the number of children or grandchildren, pregnancy history, and offspring survival rates. The researchers only included studies that analyzed men and women separately to ensure accurate data regarding female physiology.</p>
<p>The review included data from 19 articles. This encompassed 31 different samples from 16 countries, totaling over 125,000 participants. The physical traits examined included breast size, waist-to-hip ratio, voice pitch, physical strength, and the ratio of the second to fourth finger digits.</p>
<p>The researchers sought data regarding facial femininity but could not find a single study linking facial structure to direct fertility outcomes. This absence of evidence is notable given how often facial femininity is discussed in evolutionary psychology. It remains unknown whether women with more feminine facial features actually have more children.</p>
<p>For waist-to-hip ratio, the review included eight studies. A lower ratio is typically considered more feminine and is often viewed as attractive in many Western contexts. This shape creates the classic “hourglass” figure.</p>
<p>However, the review found that women with a higher, less feminine ratio often had more children. This contradicts the prediction that a lower ratio signals higher fertility. The authors suggest this likely occurs because pregnancy and childbirth physically alter a woman’s body shape, often increasing the waist measurement.</p>
<p>Only one study measured women before they had children and followed them over time. That study found no connection between a woman’s initial waist-to-hip ratio and her later fertility. The data implies that a wider waist may be a result of past fertility rather than a signal of future reproductive potential.</p>
<p>The evidence regarding breast size was similarly inconclusive. Large breasts are often theorized to be a result of sexual selection. Yet, the two articles covering three samples produced conflicting data.</p>
<p>One study found a positive link between breast size and number of children. Another found a negative link, suggesting smaller breasts correlated with more offspring. A third analysis found no connection at all. As with waist shape, pregnancy and breastfeeding affect breast volume, making cross-sectional data difficult to interpret.</p>
<p>Studies on voice pitch provided mixed results as well. One study involving Himba women in Namibia found that higher-pitched voices correlated with higher fertility. Conversely, a study involving Hadza women in Tanzania found no such association. These conflicting findings make it impossible to say whether voice pitch serves as a reliable cue for reproductive potential.</p>
<p>The reviewers also looked at the second-to-fourth finger ratio. This metric compares the length of the index finger to the ring finger. A higher ratio is typically more common in women and is often used as a marker for lower prenatal testosterone exposure.</p>
<p>Across seven studies, the results for finger ratios were inconsistent. While some data suggested a link between a more feminine finger ratio and higher fertility, the effect sizes were very small. Many analyses within these studies showed no significant relationship. The authors noted that this trait is rarely cited as a sexually selected trait in attraction research.</p>
<p>The review also examined physical strength and muscle mass. These are typically traits associated with male competition rather than female fertility. However, the researchers included them to rule out potential mediating effects.</p>
<p>Some data from the Himba sample suggested stronger women had more children. This mirrors findings in men, where strength often correlates with reproductive success. However, other samples showed no such relationship for women.</p>
<p>Overall, the review concludes that the current evidence base is too weak to support the claim that feminine physical traits act as reliable cues for reproductive potential. The popular evolutionary narrative that men prefer these traits because they signal fertility lacks robust empirical support.</p>
<p>“Current evidence does not show that women with more feminine traits are more fertile than those with less feminine traits,” Lidborg told PsyPost. “This doesn’t mean the link doesn’t exist – it means that, so far, there isn’t evidence to support it. In our article, we advise caution in repeating this hypothesis, since there isn’t sufficient evidence for it at this point.”</p>
<p>Several limitations affect the certainty of these conclusions. Most of the reviewed studies used a cross-sectional design rather than a longitudinal one. This means they measured physical traits and the number of children at the same time.</p>
<p>This design makes it difficult to determine the direction of causality. It is unclear if a physical trait leads to higher fertility or if bearing children causes changes in the physical trait. This is particularly relevant for body shape and breast size, which change significantly after pregnancy.</p>
<p>Additionally, many studies relied on participants from industrialized nations where contraception is widely used. The widespread use of birth control obscures natural associations between biology and reproductive outcomes. In these societies, family size is often a choice rather than a reflection of biological capacity.</p>
<p>Some samples were also too small to detect weak statistical relationships. If a trait provides only a very small advantage in fertility, a study needs a large number of participants to prove it. The authors caution that some non-significant results might simply lack the statistical power to show an effect.</p>
<p>The authors suggest that future research should prioritize longitudinal designs to address these gaps. Ideally, researchers would measure the physical traits of women before they begin having children and track their reproductive history over their lifetimes. This would separate the signal of fertility from the physical aftereffects of pregnancy.</p>
<p>Examining populations that do not use modern contraception would also provide clearer data on biological fertility. Comparing results across different cultures and ecological contexts is necessary to understand if these traits are universal signals.</p>
<p>“There are many reasons why men and women have evolved different faces and bodies, and attraction is only one possibility,” Lidborg said. “Some traits, like wider hips, are needed for childbirth, while others – like a more feminine facial shape – don’t have a clear reproductive function, so their evolutionary origins are less certain. Our group continues to study the evolutionary pressures that may have shaped human physical appearance.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2025.10026" target="_blank">A systematic review of the association between women’s morphological traits and fertility</a>,” was authored by Linda H. Lidborg and Lynda G. Boothroyd.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/childhood-adversity-linked-to-poorer-cognitive-function-across-different-patterns-of-aging/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Childhood adversity linked to poorer cognitive function across different patterns of aging</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 8th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.70162" target="_blank">International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry</a></em> suggests that difficult experiences in childhood can negatively impact brain health decades later in older adults. The findings indicate that these early adversities leave a lasting mark on cognitive function, persisting regardless of an individual’s physical or mental health changes as they age. This research provides evidence that interventions to protect brain health may need to account for personal history extending back to the earliest years of life.</p>
<p>Societies around the world are facing demographic shifts toward older populations, which has led to a rise in age-related chronic conditions. Cognitive decline is a significant concern within this context because it often precedes dementia and results in a loss of independence. Previous scientific inquiries have typically examined physical health, mental well-being, and cognitive function as separate domains. In reality, these aspects of health often change together and influence one another over time.</p>
<p>Medical professionals refer to the simultaneous presence of multiple health conditions as multimorbidity. The interplay between physical and mental health is well-documented, with deterioration in one area often accelerating decline in the other. However, less is known about how these combined health trajectories interact with early life experiences.</p>
<p>“We were primarily motivated by several reasons,” <a href="https://sph.hku.hk/en/Biography/Chen-Shaun-Shanquan" target="_blank">Shanquan (Shaun) Chen</a>, an assistant professor at the University of Hong Kong. “First, although cognitive decline, physical deterioration, and depressive symptoms often unfold together in older adults, very few studies have examined how these domains change simultaneously over time. This leaves an important gap in understanding the multidimensional nature of aging.”</p>
<p>“Second, while childhood adversity has been consistently linked to poorer physical and mental health in adulthood, its long-term consequences for later-life cognitive function remain debated. In particular, it is unclear whether the impact of early adversity differs depending on the type of aging trajectory an individual follows, such as rapid decline versus stability or improvement. This uncertainty represents both a conceptual and empirical gap.”</p>
<p>The research team utilized data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. This is a nationally representative survey that tracks the health and social status of individuals in China over time. The final analysis included 6,178 adults aged 60 and older. The researchers looked at data spanning a ten-year period from 2011 to 2020. This longitudinal design allowed them to track changes in health status rather than relying on a single measurement.</p>
<p>To assess cognitive function, the study employed tests of episodic memory and attention. Episodic memory was measured by asking participants to recall a list of ten words immediately after hearing them and again after a delay. Attention was evaluated using a “serial seven subtraction” task, where participants were asked to subtract seven from 100 consecutively up to five times. These scores were combined to create a total cognitive function score ranging from 0 to 25.</p>
<p>Physical health was measured by checking if participants had difficulty with daily tasks. The researchers assessed “Basic Activities of Daily Living,” which included tasks such as dressing, bathing, eating, and getting in and out of bed. They also assessed “Instrumental Activities of Daily Living,” which covered more complex tasks like managing money, taking medications, shopping for groceries, and making phone calls. Higher scores on these measures indicated greater physical limitations.</p>
<p>Mental health was evaluated using a standard ten-item scale designed to measure depressive symptoms. Participants reported how often they experienced feelings such as fear, loneliness, or exhaustion during the past week. To measure early-life stress, the study asked participants about 13 specific adverse experiences occurring before age 17. These included events such as parental death, parental mental illness, neglect, physical abuse, domestic violence, or family substance abuse.</p>
<p>The researchers used a statistical technique called Latent Class Growth Modeling to identify patterns in the data. This method allows statisticians to group individuals into distinct “classes” based on how their health scores changed over the decade. The goal was to find subgroups of people who followed similar aging paths.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed four distinct groups of aging trajectories. The largest group, comprising nearly 60 percent of the sample, was classified as “healthy individuals.” This group maintained generally stable and healthy levels across cognitive, physical, and mental domains.</p>
<p>A second group, representing about 16.5 percent of the participants, was characterized by “rapid cognitive decline with gradual physical-mental decline.” These individuals experienced a sharp drop in brain function alongside a slow deterioration in their physical and mental health.</p>
<p>A third group, making up 14.4 percent of the sample, showed “mild cognitive decline with physical-mental improvement.” This group displayed a slight drop in cognitive scores but, notably, saw improvements in their physical and mental health metrics over the decade.</p>
<p>“The group whose physical and mental health improved still experienced cognitive decline,” Chen told PsyPost. “This suggests that cognitive aging can deteriorate even when other health domains improve, highlighting partially independent pathways.”</p>
<p>The final group, accounting for 9.4 percent, was labeled “moderate cognitive decline with rapid physical and moderate mental decline.” This group experienced deterioration across all three health domains, with physical health worsening most rapidly.</p>
<p>The researchers found a consistent negative association between childhood adversity and later-life cognitive scores. Individuals who reported experiencing three or more adverse childhood events had lower cognitive function compared to those with no such history. This pattern remained evident even after the researchers statistically accounted for adult education, income, marital status, and lifestyle behaviors like smoking or exercise.</p>
<p>The negative link between early trauma and cognitive performance existed across the different health trajectories. This consistency suggests that the impact of early adversity acts like a “scar,” affecting the brain regardless of how healthy a person is in other aspects of their adult life.</p>
<p>“The impact of childhood adversity was consistent across all trajectory groups,” Chen explained. “We expected the effects to differ based on aging patterns, but the ‘early-life imprint’ appeared similarly strong regardless of later-life health trajectory.”</p>
<p>“The key message is simple: Experiences in childhood can shape brain health many decades later, even after accounting for adult lifestyle, socioeconomic status, and chronic conditions. Although older adults follow very different patterns of physical, mental, and cognitive aging, the impact of childhood adversity on later-life cognition was remarkably consistent.” </p>
<p>As with all research, there are some limitations. The study relied on participants recalling events from decades earlier, which introduces the possibility of memory bias. The measure of mental health focused primarily on depressive symptoms, potentially missing other aspects of psychological well-being like anxiety. </p>
<p>Because this was an observational study, it can identify associations but cannot definitively prove that childhood adversity causes cognitive decline. “Although the longitudinal design strengthens inference, unmeasured factors (e.g., genetics, environmental exposures) may contribute,” Chen said.</p>
<p>He also emphasized that “childhood adversity does not determine your destiny. It increases risk, but many individuals still maintain good cognitive health.”</p>
<p>Future research should aim to identify the biological mechanisms that connect early stress to the aging brain. Potential pathways include chronic inflammation or long-term changes in the body’s stress response systems. </p>
<p>The researchers also suggest examining specific types of adversity rather than just the total number of events to see if certain experiences are more damaging than others. Validating these health trajectory patterns in different cultural populations would help generalize the findings. Finally, developing intervention strategies that span the entire life course could help mitigate these long-term risks.</p>
<p>“One of the most important insights is that aging is not uniform,” Chen explained. “Older adults follow diverse health trajectories, and these trajectories interact with early-life experiences in nuanced ways. Understanding these patterns can help policymakers and clinicians move beyond ‘one-size-fits-all’ models toward precision aging—tailored prevention and support strategies that meet individuals where they are in their life-course pathways.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.70162" target="_blank">Childhood Adversity and Cognitive Function Across Physical‐Mental‐Cognitive Health Trajectories: A 10‐Year Longitudinal Study of Chinese Older Adults</a>,” was authored by Yin Wang, Jiazhou Yu, Yiqiong Yang, and Shanquan Chen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/scientists-link-inflammation-to-neural-vulnerability-in-psychotic-depression/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Scientists link inflammation to neural vulnerability in psychotic depression</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 7th 2025, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>New research suggests that a severe and specific form of depression involves a systemic disruption linking the immune system to brain development. Published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202508383" target="_blank">Advanced Science</a></em>, the findings identify potential biological markers in the blood that correspond to structural changes in brain tissue. This offers a new perspective on how physical inflammation might act as a driving force behind severe mental illness.</p>
<p>Major depressive disorder affects hundreds of millions of people globally and is a leading cause of disability. Despite its prevalence, psychiatrists lack objective biological tests for diagnosis or treatment planning. Doctors currently rely on symptom checklists and patient self-reports. This lack of physical evidence makes it difficult to predict which patients will respond to standard medications.</p>
<p>The biological mechanisms underlying depression remain largely opaque. This is particularly true for a subtype known as major depressive disorder with atypical features and psychotic symptoms. Patients with this condition experience reversed physical symptoms, such as overeating and sleeping too much, rather than the insomnia and loss of appetite seen in typical depression. They also suffer from a break with reality, experiencing hallucinations or delusions.</p>
<p>This subtype is associated with significant social impairment and a higher risk of suicide. It is frequently resistant to conventional antidepressant treatments. Previous scientific work has hinted at a connection between this disorder and the immune system. Elevated inflammation is a common trait in many psychiatric conditions. However, the exact relationship between circulating immune markers and the actual function of brain cells has been difficult to map in living patients.</p>
<p>A team of researchers from Inha University and KAIST in South Korea sought to bridge this gap. The team was led by Soyeon Chang, Seok-Ho Choi, Jiyoung Lee, Yangsik Kim, Insook Ahn, and Jinju Han. They aimed to find measurable biological signs, or biomarkers, that could explain the severity of this specific condition. They utilized a precision medicine approach that combined clinical data with advanced laboratory techniques.</p>
<p>The researchers recruited young female patients diagnosed with atypical depression and psychotic symptoms. They compared these participants to a group of healthy female controls. The study focused on women because this depression subtype is more common in females and often presents with distinct biological patterns.</p>
<p>The team began by assessing the clinical history of the participants. They found that the patients had experienced significantly higher levels of lifetime trauma and perceived stress. Psychological evaluations confirmed severe levels of anxiety and depression. Initial standard blood tests revealed that the patients had higher white blood cell counts, a nonspecific sign of bodily inflammation.</p>
<p>To understand the molecular landscape, the researchers analyzed proteins floating in the blood plasma. They utilized a technique called proteomics to screen for hundreds of proteins simultaneously. This analysis uncovered specific alterations in the patient group. The patients exhibited elevated levels of proteins that are typically associated with the nervous system rather than the blood.</p>
<p>One of these proteins is Doublecortin-Like Kinase 3, or DCLK3. This protein usually plays a role in the survival of neurons and the formation of synapses in the brain. Another elevated protein was Calcyon, or CALY, which is involved in dopamine signaling and vesicle trafficking within nerve cells. The presence of these brain-linked proteins in the blood suggests a potential disruption in the barrier between the brain and the circulatory system or a systemic dysregulation affecting both areas.</p>
<p>The researchers also found elevated levels of Complement Component 5, or C5. This protein is a central part of the immune system’s inflammatory response. Its upregulation supports the theory that an overactive immune system is a key feature of this psychiatric condition.</p>
<p>The investigation moved from proteins to the genetic activity within individual immune cells. The team performed single-cell RNA sequencing on white blood cells. This technology allows scientists to see which genes are turned on or off in every single cell in a sample.</p>
<p>The results showed a clear imbalance in the immune systems of the patients. The cells responsible for innate immunity were overactive. These cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, act as the body’s first responders to infection or injury. Their genetic activity pointed toward a state of chronic inflammation. </p>
<p>Conversely, the cells responsible for adaptive immunity were less active. These are the B cells and T cells that remember specific pathogens. This shift suggests the patients’ bodies were stuck in a persistent state of general alert.</p>
<p>The most innovative aspect of the study involved the creation of brain organoids. Studying the living human brain at the cellular level is impossible. To overcome this, the scientists took blood cells from the patients and reprogrammed them into induced pluripotent stem cells. These stem cells have the ability to turn into any tissue in the body.</p>
<p>The researchers coaxed these stem cells to develop into three-dimensional brain tissue. These “mini-brains” allow scientists to observe how a patient’s own genetic code directs brain development in a dish. The observations revealed significant differences. The brain organoids derived from the patients grew more slowly than those derived from healthy controls. By day sixty of development, the patient organoids were noticeably smaller.</p>
<p>The team then exposed these organoids to a synthetic stress hormone called dexamethasone. This chemical mimics the effects of cortisol, the body’s primary stress hormone. This step was designed to replicate the biological reality of the patients, who reported high levels of life stress.</p>
<p>The patient-derived tissues struggled to cope with this chemical pressure. The healthy organoids managed the stress relatively well. However, the patient organoids showed distinct patterns of gene expression that indicated a failure to adapt. They exhibited increased rates of apoptosis, or programmed cell death. This suggests that the neural cells of these patients possess an inherent genetic vulnerability to stress. This vulnerability leads to impaired growth and survival of neurons.</p>
<p>The study proposes a connection known as the immune-neural axis. The findings suggest that the elevated inflammation seen in the blood is not just a side effect. It appears to be biologically linked to the developmental issues seen in the brain tissue. The same signaling pathways that drive the immune overreaction may be contributing to the synaptic dysfunction and stunted neural growth.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this research that require consideration. The sample size was small, involving only a handful of patients and controls. This is common in studies using expensive and labor-intensive technologies like organoids and single-cell sequencing. However, it means the results must be interpreted with caution until they are replicated in larger groups.</p>
<p>The study included only female participants. This was a deliberate choice to reduce biological variability, but it means the findings might not apply to men. Additionally, the brain organoid experiments relied on cells from a single patient donor compared to controls. While the researchers used multiple replicates to ensure technical accuracy, individual genetic differences could influence the results.</p>
<p>The brain organoids also lack a complete immune system. They do not contain microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain. The researchers had to infer the interaction between the peripheral immune system and the brain based on separate analyses. Future models that incorporate immune cells into the brain tissue could provide a clearer picture of this interaction.</p>
<p>The researchers highlight the potential for these findings to lead to new diagnostic tools. The proteins DCLK3, CALY, and C5 could potentially serve as biomarkers. If validated, a blood test could one day help psychiatrists identify this severe subtype of depression. This would allow for more targeted treatment strategies that address both the mental and immunological aspects of the disorder.</p>
<p>This study represents a step toward precision psychiatry. It moves beyond subjective symptom descriptions to uncover the hard biology of mental illness. By linking clinical trauma, blood inflammation, and neural development, the work underscores that depression is a systemic disease affecting the whole body.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202508383" target="_blank">Exploration of Novel Biomarkers Through a Precision Medicine Approach Using Multi-Omics and Brain Organoids in Patients With Atypical Depression and Psychotic Symptoms</a>,” was authored by Insook Ahn, Soyeon Chang, Jiyoung Lee, Seok-Ho Choi, Jinju Han, and Yangsik Kim.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/saffron-supplements-might-help-with-erectile-dysfunction-study-suggests/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Saffron supplements might help with erectile dysfunction, study suggests</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 7th 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>An experimental study in Iran found that taking saffron supplements twice daily for 4 weeks helps with erectile dysfunction. Erectile function improved after the treatment period in the group taking saffron capsules compared to the control group. All other measured aspects of sexual function improved significantly compared to the control group, except for orgasmic function. The paper was published in <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.22087/hmj.2025.231635"><em>Herbal Medicines Journal</em></a>.</p>
<p>Saffron is a spice made from the dried stigmas of the <em>Crocus sativus</em> flower. It is one of the most expensive spices in the world due to the labor-intensive harvesting process. Saffron has been used for centuries in cooking, traditional medicine, and as a natural dye. The spice contains several bioactive compounds, including crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin, which are believed to contribute to its potential health effects.</p>
<p>Saffron is also sold in the form of capsules or supplements. Saffron supplements contain concentrated forms of bioactive compounds of saffron. People take saffron supplements for mood improvement, as some studies suggest benefits for mild to moderate depression and anxiety. They are also sometimes used to support sleep quality and reduce stress. Some evidence indicates that saffron may help reduce appetite and contribute to modest weight management effects. Research has also explored saffron’s potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.</p>
<p>Study author Mohammad-Rafi Bazrafshan and his colleagues wanted to investigate the effects of saffron capsules on erectile dysfunction in men. They note that saffron might be able to affect sexual functioning both by exerting effects on neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and by increasing blood circulation to the genitals. Additionally, these researchers state that saffron and its derivatives increase the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, which leads to increased libido in men.</p>
<p>Study participants were 24 men with erectile dysfunction. To be included in the study, they were required to be over 18 years of age and married, to have mild to moderate erectile dysfunction, and to not be taking any other medications for this condition. Participants’ average age was approximately 36 years.</p>
<p>Study authors randomly divided participants into two groups. One group took 2 capsules containing 15mg of saffron twice daily for 4 weeks. The other group did not receive any treatment. Before and after the treatment, participants completed an assessment of sexual functioning that included erectile function, orgasm function, sexual desire, intercourse satisfaction, and overall satisfaction.</p>
<p>Results showed that, after the 4-week study period, all aspects of erectile functioning improved in the group that was taking saffron capsules. Interestingly, all other aspects of sexual functioning also improved. However, when compared to the control group, the improvements were statistically significant in all areas except for orgasmic function.</p>
<p>“The findings of the present research indicated that saffron could affect all dimensions of erectile dysfunction. Due to the safety of this herbal medication, saffron could be consumed for the recovery of sexual efficiency,” study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the therapeutic potentials of saffron supplements. However, it should be noted that this was an open-label study in which participants were fully aware of the treatment they were undergoing, that the control group underwent no treatment (instead of receiving a placebo), and that the main outcome assessment was based on self-reports. This leaves a lot of room for the results to be a product of the Hawthorne effect (or placebo effect)—i.e., participants changing their behavior or self-reports because they are aware that they are being observed and treated, in line with their views of what study authors’ expectations might be.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="http://www.doi.org/10.22087/hmj.2025.231635">Effects of Saffron on Erectile Dysfunction in Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial,</a>” was authored by Mohammad-Rafi Bazrafshan, Seyede Fatemeh Ahmadpoori, Aliaskar Askari, Omid Soufi, Ali Mohammad Parviniannasab, and Hamed Delam.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-research-differentiates-cognitive-disengagement-syndrome-from-adhd-in-youth/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New research differentiates cognitive disengagement syndrome from ADHD in youth</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 7th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>Recent investigations into child psychology have provided evidence that a specific cluster of behavioral symptoms is separate and distinct from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The research indicates that this condition, known as cognitive disengagement syndrome, presents a unique set of challenges that shift as children mature into adolescents. These findings were published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547251344719" target="_blank">Journal of Attention Disorders</a></em>.</p>
<p>Cognitive disengagement syndrome is a condition characterized by a specific pattern of mental functioning. Individuals with this syndrome often exhibit excessive daydreaming, frequent mental confusion, and a general slowing of thinking or behavior. These behaviors were historically described as “sluggish cognitive tempo” in older medical literature.</p>
<p>Psychologists and researchers have debated how to best categorize these symptoms for years. The primary question has been whether these behaviors represent a subset of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or if they constitute a standalone clinical syndrome. Clarifying this distinction is necessary for ensuring that children receive accurate diagnoses and appropriate support.</p>
<p>Past research has largely focused on validating the list of fifteen symptoms associated with cognitive disengagement syndrome. Studies conducted in countries such as Brazil, South Korea, and the United States have supported the idea that these symptoms are structurally different from the inattention associated with attention deficits. Structural validity indicates that the symptoms group together reliably and are mathematically distinct from other attention problems.</p>
<p>The researchers behind the current study aimed to take this understanding a step further by examining clinical categories. They sought to determine if they could identify groups of youth who met the criteria for cognitive disengagement syndrome but did not meet the criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. They also investigated whether the emotional and social difficulties associated with these conditions change between childhood and adolescence.</p>
<p>The study was conducted by a team of international experts in child psychopathology. G. Leonard Burns of Washington State University and Stephen P. Becker of Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center led the investigation. They collaborated with Juan José Montaño, Belén Sáez, and Mateu Servera from the University of the Balearic Islands in Spain.</p>
<p>The investigators utilized a nationally representative sample of families residing in Spain to gather their data. They recruited participants through an online platform to ensure a broad demographic reach across the country’s various regions. The final sample consisted of parents reporting on 5,525 children and adolescents.</p>
<p>The study participants ranged in age from 5 to 16 years. To analyze developmental differences, the researchers divided the youth into a childhood group (ages 5 to 10) and an adolescence group (ages 11 to 16). Parents completed the Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory to rate the frequency of specific behaviors.</p>
<p>This inventory assessed symptoms related to cognitive disengagement, inattention, and hyperactivity-impulsivity. It also measured functional impairments such as academic struggles, social difficulties, and sleep problems. The researchers used statistical thresholds to create specific clinical groups based on the parents’ ratings.</p>
<p>They identified children who scored in the clinical range for cognitive disengagement syndrome only. They also identified those who scored in the clinical range for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder only. The latter group was further broken down into three presentations: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, and combined.</p>
<p>The first major finding concerned the independence of the two conditions. The data showed that a distinct group of youth exhibited high levels of cognitive disengagement without significant symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This independence was observed in both the childhood and adolescent age groups.</p>
<p>The researchers found that approximately 2.5 percent of children and 1.5 percent of adolescents in the general population fit the “cognitive disengagement syndrome only” profile. This confirms that the syndrome can exist as a solo clinical entity. However, the study also provided detailed statistics on how often the conditions overlap.</p>
<p>In the childhood group, about half of the youth with cognitive disengagement syndrome did not qualify for a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This rate of independence decreased slightly as the children got older. In the adolescent group, roughly one-third of those with cognitive disengagement syndrome did not have a co-occurring attention disorder.</p>
<p>The study then examined how these groups differed in terms of emotional and behavioral problems. In the childhood group, those with cognitive disengagement syndrome displayed a significantly higher risk for internalizing disorders. They scored higher on measures of anxiety and depression compared to children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.</p>
<p>These children also exhibited higher rates of somatization. This refers to the expression of psychological distress through physical symptoms, such as headaches or stomachaches. This tendency toward physical complaints was more pronounced in the cognitive disengagement group than in any of the attention-deficit groups.</p>
<p>The pattern of findings shifted noticeably when the researchers analyzed the adolescent group. The gap in anxiety and depression scores between the conditions largely disappeared. Adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder reported levels of anxiety and depression that were similar to those with cognitive disengagement syndrome.</p>
<p>This convergence suggests different developmental pathways for these disorders. It is possible that depression in cognitive disengagement syndrome is a consistent feature that begins early. Conversely, depression in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder may develop later as a reaction to years of academic and social struggles.</p>
<p>Sleep difficulties emerged as a strong and consistent differentiator between the groups. Across both childhood and adolescence, youth with cognitive disengagement syndrome experienced more daytime sleep-related impairment. They were more likely to appear drowsy, lethargic, or tired during the day than their peers with attention deficits.</p>
<p>Nighttime sleep disturbances were also more common in the cognitive disengagement group. This includes trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. While this difference was clear in childhood, the distinction became less consistent in adolescence regarding comparisons with the hyperactive-impulsive group.</p>
<p>The researchers also assessed social functioning, which revealed nuanced differences. In childhood, the cognitive disengagement group showed higher levels of social withdrawal. These children were more likely to isolate themselves from peer interactions compared to those with attention deficits.</p>
<p>However, peer rejection presented a different dynamic. Children with the hyperactive-impulsive presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder often experience active rejection by peers. The study found that while cognitive disengagement children withdraw, they do not necessarily face the same level of active rejection as hyperactive children.</p>
<p>By adolescence, the differences in social impairment leveled off. The cognitive disengagement group and the attention-deficit groups showed similar levels of social difficulties. This indicates that while the specific nature of the social problems might differ, the overall impact on social life becomes comparable in the teenage years.</p>
<p>Academic impairment provided one of the clearest distinctions between the conditions. In the adolescent sample, the attention-deficit groups showed significantly greater academic struggles. The combined presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder was associated with the highest levels of school-related difficulty.</p>
<p>Adolescents with cognitive disengagement syndrome fared better academically than those with attention deficits. This suggests that the symptoms of daydreaming and mental confusion may be less detrimental to school grades than the symptoms of inattention and impulsivity. This finding aligns with previous research suggesting different functional outcomes for the two conditions.</p>
<p>The study also looked at oppositional defiant disorder, which involves a pattern of angry or argumentative behavior. In the adolescent group, those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder showed significantly higher levels of oppositional behavior. The cognitive disengagement group had lower rates of these disruptive behaviors.</p>
<p>This suggests that externalizing behaviors, such as defiance and aggression, are not central features of cognitive disengagement syndrome. The syndrome appears to be more closely improved with internal distress and withdrawal. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, particularly the combined and hyperactive types, is more strongly linked to outward behavioral conflict.</p>
<p>The researchers noted several limitations to their study that context is required to interpret the results. The data relied solely on ratings provided by mothers and fathers. The study did not include information from teachers, who often see different behaviors in the classroom setting.</p>
<p>Additionally, the study did not include self-reports from the adolescents themselves. Teenagers often have unique insights into their own internal emotional states, particularly regarding anxiety and depression. Future research would benefit from incorporating multiple perspectives to build a more complete picture.</p>
<p>The study design was cross-sectional rather than longitudinal. This means the researchers looked at different children at different ages at a single point in time. They did not track the same individual children as they grew from age 5 to age 16.</p>
<p>Because of this design, the suggestions regarding developmental pathways are hypotheses rather than confirmed timelines. Longitudinal research is needed to verify whether children with attention deficits actually develop depression later in life as a result of their struggles. Tracking individuals over time would clarify the cause-and-effect relationships suggested by this data.</p>
<p>The authors also emphasized the need to replicate these findings in other cultural contexts. While this study confirms findings from the United States using a Spanish sample, further global research is necessary. Differences in school systems and cultural expectations could influence how these symptoms present and impact functioning.</p>
<p>Despite these caveats, the study provides strong evidence for the validity of cognitive disengagement syndrome. It reinforces the idea that clinicians should assess for these symptoms separately from attention deficits. Recognizing the unique profile of this syndrome could lead to more targeted and effective interventions for struggling youth.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547251344719" target="_blank">Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome is Clinically Distinct from ADHD Presentations within Childhood and Adolescence</a>,” was authored by G. Leonard Burns, Stephen P. Becker, Juan José Montaño, Belén Sáez, and Mateu Servera.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/laughing-gas-may-offer-rapid-relief-for-treatment-resistant-depression/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Laughing gas may offer rapid relief for treatment-resistant depression</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 7th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new comprehensive analysis indicates that nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, provides rapid relief for adults suffering from severe forms of depression. The findings suggest that this common anesthetic could serve as a fast-acting alternative for patients who have not responded to standard antidepressant medications. These results were detailed in a paper published recently in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.106023" target="_blank">eBioMedicine</a></em>.</p>
<p>Depression is a pervasive condition that affects hundreds of millions of people globally. It disrupts biological and environmental systems to cause severe disability and reduced quality of life. The economic burden is immense, with costs related to poor mental health estimated to exceed hundreds of billions of euros annually in Europe alone.</p>
<p>Standard treatments typically focus on regulating monoamines, such as serotonin and noradrenaline. While these medications help many, they fail to provide relief for nearly half of all patients. They also typically take several weeks to become effective. This delay and high rate of failure have prompted researchers to look for alternatives that target different brain pathways.</p>
<p>One area of focus is the glutamatergic system, which manages excitatory signaling in the brain. Drugs that block specific receptors in this system, known as NMDA receptors, have shown the ability to lift mood quickly. Ketamine is a well-known example of this type of compound, but its use can be complicated by significant side effects.</p>
<p>Nitrous oxide also interacts with these NMDA receptors. To understand its potential better, a team of researchers led by Kiranpreet Gill and Professor Steven Marwaha from the University of Birmingham and the University of Oxford conducted a comprehensive study. Their goal was to assess the efficacy, safety, and clinical relevance of the gas for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression.</p>
<p>The researchers employed a multi-pronged approach to evaluate the existing evidence. They conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis, which involved combing through medical databases to identify all relevant clinical trials. The team also utilized a technique called evidence mapping to visualize the current landscape of ongoing and completed research.</p>
<p>The investigators aggregated data from seven completed randomized controlled trials involving nearly 250 participants. These studies included patients with major depressive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, and bipolar depression. By pooling the statistical data from these separate trials, the team could measure the overall effectiveness of the gas compared to placebos.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that patients who inhaled nitrous oxide experienced a significant reduction in depressive symptoms shortly after administration. These improvements were statistically detectable at two hours and twenty-four hours after the treatment session. The speed of this response stands in contrast to traditional oral antidepressants which function on a much slower timeline.</p>
<p>However, the study data showed that for single sessions, the antidepressant effects typically diminished after one week. The benefits were transient rather than permanent following a solitary dose. The researchers then examined the impact of receiving multiple treatments over time.</p>
<p>The data suggested that repeated sessions over several weeks led to more durable symptom reduction compared to a single dose. This indicates that a cumulative effect may occur with sustained treatment protocols. The review also compared gas mixtures containing twenty-five percent nitrous oxide against those with fifty percent.</p>
<p>Both concentrations reduced symptoms more effectively than a placebo. There was evidence of a dose-response relationship, where the higher concentration provided greater symptom relief. However, the higher dose was also associated with a higher rate of side effects.</p>
<p>The safety analysis showed that side effects were generally mild and temporary. Commonly reported issues included nausea, dizziness, and headaches. These physical sensations usually resolved spontaneously shortly after the gas administration stopped.</p>
<p>No serious adverse events requiring emergency medical intervention were recorded in the reviewed trials. When comparing the two dosage levels, the twenty-five percent concentration resulted in significantly fewer instances of nausea and vomiting. This suggests lower doses might offer a better balance of tolerability and efficacy for some patients.</p>
<p>Beyond the statistical analysis of past trials, the authors used evidence mapping to assess the broader research pipeline. They reviewed protocols for ongoing and planned studies to identify trends and gaps. This assessment highlighted that research has largely focused on single-session protocols in adults.</p>
<p>The mapping process revealed a scarcity of data regarding long-term outcomes. There are also very few studies examining the use of this treatment for adolescents or for bipolar depression. The team also highlighted a lack of standardization in how the gas is delivered and how outcomes are measured across different experiments.</p>
<p>The biological mechanisms behind the success of nitrous oxide are multifaceted. The gas blocks NMDA receptors, which helps restore disrupted glutamate signaling often implicated in depression. It also increases blood flow to the brain, which may improve oxygen and nutrient delivery to neural tissues.</p>
<p>Some evidence suggests the gas may reduce hyperactivity in the default mode network. This is a brain network linked to self-referential thought and rumination. Dampening activity in this area could help alleviate the negative thought loops that characterize depressive states.</p>
<p>Additionally, nitrous oxide modulates the opioid and dopamine systems. These systems are central to regulating mood and sensitivity to reward. By engaging these pathways, the treatment may help address core symptoms such as the inability to feel pleasure or a lack of motivation.</p>
<p>The study offers a comparison to ketamine, another rapid-acting agent. While both target NMDA receptors, ketamine appears to have a stronger and longer-lasting effect after a single dose. However, ketamine is also associated with more intense side effects, such as dissociation and cardiovascular changes.</p>
<p>Nitrous oxide appears to induce weaker NMDA inhibition. This likely contributes to its milder side effect profile. The trade-off appears to be a shorter duration of antidepressant action requiring potentially more frequent administration.</p>
<p>While the results are promising, there are limitations to the current evidence base. The total number of participants across all reviewed studies remains relatively small. This limits the statistical power to detect subtle differences between patient subgroups.</p>
<p>The transient nature of the relief provided by a single dose suggests that nitrous oxide may not be a standalone cure. It might function better as part of a maintenance schedule or a bridge to other therapies. Researchers must determine the optimal frequency of sessions to maintain the benefits.</p>
<p>Blinding is another methodological challenge in these types of experiments. Because nitrous oxide causes distinct physical sensations, participants often guess correctly that they are not in the placebo group. This awareness can influence patient reporting of symptom improvement.</p>
<p>Future studies will need to address these issues with rigorous designs and larger groups of participants. Researchers need to standardize how they measure remission and response rates. This would allow for better comparisons between different clinical trials.</p>
<p>Kiranpreet Gill, a PhD researcher funded by the Medical Research Council at the University of Birmingham and first author of the study, said: “Depression is a debilitating illness, made even more so by the fact that antidepressants make no meaningful difference for almost half of all patients diagnosed with it. There is a growing body of research on repurposing treatments from other clinical domains to alleviate low mood. This study brings together the best possible evidence indicating that nitrous oxide has the potential to provide swift and clinically significant short-term improvements in patients with severe depression.”</p>
<p>She continued regarding the implications for future work. “Our analyses show that nitrous oxide could form part of a new generation of rapid-acting treatments for depression. Importantly, it provides a foundation for future trials to investigate repeated and carefully managed dosing strategies that can further determine how best to use this treatment in clinical practice for patients who don’t respond to conventional interventions.”</p>
<p>The safety of long-term use also requires further investigation to ensure there are no cumulative negative effects. Misuse of the gas recreationally is known to cause vitamin B12 deficiency and potential nerve damage. Clinical protocols would need to account for these risks through supplementation or monitoring.</p>
<p>Professor Steven Marwaha from the University of Birmingham, the senior author, commented on the significance of the work. “This is a significant milestone in understanding the potential of nitrous oxide as an added treatment option for patients with depression who have been failed by current treatments.” </p>
<p>“This population has often lost hope of recovery, making the results of this study particularly exciting. These findings highlight the urgent need for new treatments that can complement existing care pathways, and further evidence is needed to understand how this approach can best support people living with severe depression.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.106023" target="_blank">Nitrous oxide for the treatment of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis</a>,” was authored by Kiranpreet Gill, Angharad N. de Cates, Chantelle Wiseman, Susannah E. Murphy, Ella Williams, Catherine J. Harmer, Isabel Morales-Muñoz, and Steven Marwaha.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/synesthesia-is-several-times-more-frequent-in-musicians-than-in-nonmusicians/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Synesthesia is several times more frequent in musicians than in nonmusicians</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 7th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study found that synesthesia is several times more prevalent in musicians than in non-musicians. For example, synesthesia linking sound and color was present in between 0.3% and 1.3% of non-musicians, but in between 1.3% and 7.3% of musicians. The paper was published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/03010066251390106"><em>Perception</em></a>.</p>
<p>Synesthesia is a neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive system automatically triggers an additional, involuntary experience in another. People with synesthesia might see colors when they hear sounds, taste flavors when they read words, or associate numbers with specific spatial locations. These experiences are consistent over time, meaning the same stimulus always produces the same secondary sensation.</p>
<p>Synesthesia is not considered a disorder because it typically causes no impairment and can even enhance memory or creativity. It appears to run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Brain-imaging research shows increased cross-activation or connectivity between sensory regions in synesthetes. </p>
<p>Different types of synesthesia exist, such as grapheme–color, chromesthesia, lexical–gustatory, and spatial-sequence forms. Most synesthetes are aware that their perceptions differ from others but still experience them as automatic and vivid. The condition often emerges in early childhood and remains stable throughout life.</p>
<p>Study author Linden Williamson and her colleagues wanted to examine the prevalence of synesthesia in musicians and non-musicians. Musicians were defined as individuals working in the music industry or earning money from music. These authors hypothesized that synesthesia would be more prevalent in musicians than in non-musicians. They expected this to be particularly the case with sound-color synesthesia—the type of synesthesia where a person experiences a color when hearing a sound.</p>
<p>Study participants were 1,003 individuals recruited from music organizations, Texas Lutheran University, and through Prolific. The music organizations through which participants were recruited were Sonic Guild (formerly Black Fret, <a href="http://www.sonicguild.org/">www.sonicguild.org/</a>) and Orb (<a href="https://www.orbrecordingstudios.com/">https://www.orbrecordingstudios.com/</a>). The study authors note that these organizations represent leading artists in the Austin (Texas) region.</p>
<p>Participants completed a brief survey run on Qualtrics which asked about hobbies, work in creative industries, and types of synesthesia. Participants who reported experiencing synesthesia were redirected to another website where they took up to three tests to validate different forms of synesthesia (grapheme-color, sound-color, and sequence-space synesthesia) to confirm that these individuals genuinely experienced the condition.</p>
<p>Overall, 395 participants were musicians. The average age of participating musicians was 36 years, while the average age of non-musicians was 40 years. There were 168 men in the musician group, compared to 241 men in the non-musician group.</p>
<p>Seventy-two participants passed one or more tests of synesthesia (meaning that they were considered synesthetes). These individuals did not differ in age or gender from those not experiencing synesthesia. Synesthesia was several times more frequent among musicians than among non-musicians. Compared to non-musicians, musicians had 4.2 times higher odds of experiencing sound-color synesthesia, 7.7 times higher odds of experiencing grapheme-color synesthesia, and 3.6 times higher odds of experiencing sequence-space synesthesia.</p>
<p>Grapheme–color synesthesia is a form of synesthesia in which letters or numbers automatically evoke specific color experiences. Sequence–space synesthesia is a type of synesthesia in which ordered sequences—such as numbers, days, or months—are experienced as having specific spatial locations or arrangements around the person.</p>
<p>Overall, musicians had 4.4 times higher odds of experiencing synesthesia compared to non-musicians. Depending on the threshold applied, sound-color synesthesia was present in between 0.3% and 1.3% of non-musicians, but in between 1.3% and 7.3% of musicians.</p>
<p>“In conclusion, we provide convincing evidence that synesthesia, in various forms, is more prevalent amongst musicians,” the study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of synesthesia. However, individuals were initially considered as potential synesthetes only if they self-reported such experiences. This may have excluded individuals who were synesthetes but did not recognize such experiences as synesthesia.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/03010066251390106">Increased prevalence of synaesthesia in musicians,</a>” was authored by Linden Williamson, Scott Bailey, and Jamie Ward.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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