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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/many-suicide-deaths-occur-without-high-genetic-risk-for-mental-illness/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Many suicide deaths occur without high genetic risk for mental illness</a>
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<p><p>Recent research indicates that people who die by suicide without a prior history of suicidal behavior may possess a distinct biological profile compared to those with a known history of distress. A new study published in <em><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2840358" target="_blank" rel="noopener">JAMA Network Open</a></em> reveals that these individuals carry significantly fewer genetic risk factors for mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety. These findings suggest that suicide risk in this specific group may be driven by different mechanisms than researchers previously assumed.</p>
<p>Public health officials identify suicide as a severe and persistent crisis, with hundreds of thousands of lives lost globally each year. Medical professionals typically rely on a patient’s history of suicide attempts or expressed suicidal thoughts to gauge future risk. This history is currently the most reliable predictor available to clinicians.</p>
<p>However, this metric has substantial limitations. Statistics show that roughly half of all suicide deaths occur in individuals who have no documented record of suicidal thoughts or behaviors. These deaths often come as a shock to family members and medical providers alike.</p>
<p>A large portion of these unexpected deaths occurs in individuals who also lack a formal diagnosis of a mental health disorder. The prevailing assumption in the medical community has been that these individuals likely suffered from undiagnosed mental illnesses. Under this theory, they faced barriers to care or screening that prevented their conditions from being recognized.</p>
<p>Researchers at the University of Utah Huntsman Mental Health Institute sought to test this assumption. They hypothesized that if the lack of diagnosis was simply an administrative failure, the underlying genetic risk for mental illness should remain high in this group. Alternatively, they proposed that these individuals might differ biologically from those with established histories of suicidality.</p>
<p>The study utilized data from the Utah Suicide Mortality Research Study. This resource links medical examiner records with genetic information and electronic health records. The team examined data from over 2,700 individuals who died by suicide between 1998 and 2022.</p>
<p>The researchers divided these individuals into two distinct cohorts. The first group consisted of 1,432 individuals who had evidence of prior suicidality in their medical records or clinical notes. The second group included 1,337 individuals who died by suicide but had no such documented history.</p>
<p>To assess biological risk, the team calculated polygenic scores for each individual. A polygenic score is a statistical tool that aggregates the effects of thousands of small genetic variations. It does not provide a diagnosis but estimates an individual’s genetic liability or predisposition for a specific trait.</p>
<p>The team calculated these scores for twelve different neuropsychiatric conditions. These included major depressive disorder, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. They also generated scores for traits such as neuroticism and for neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s disease.</p>
<p>For comparison, the researchers analyzed the same genetic markers in a control group of nearly 20,000 people from the general population. This allowed them to establish a baseline for what constitutes average genetic risk. They adjusted their analysis to account for variables such as age, sex, and genetic ancestry.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed significant genetic differences between the two suicide cohorts. The group without prior suicidal history had much lower polygenic scores for major depressive disorder and anxiety than the group with a known history. Their genetic liability for neuroticism and posttraumatic stress disorder was also significantly lower.</p>
<p>When compared to the general population control group, the findings were even more specific. The genetic scores for depressed affect and neuroticism in the group without prior suicidality were statistically indistinguishable from the controls. This indicates that their genetic baseline for these mood-related traits was effectively average.</p>
<p>The study also identified traits that shared genetic liability across both suicide groups. Polygenic scores for schizophrenia were elevated in both cohorts compared to the general population. This was true even though the group without prior suicidality rarely had clinical diagnoses of schizophrenia.</p>
<p>Similarly, genetic risks for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and alcohol use were elevated in both groups relative to controls. This suggests that traits related to impulse control may be a common factor in suicide mortality. This commonality appears to exist regardless of whether an individual has a history of suicidal behavior.</p>
<p>The researchers performed additional analyses to see if these patterns held true across different demographic subgroups. They found that the results varied somewhat depending on the sex of the individual and their age at death.</p>
<p>Among women who died without prior warning signs, genetic scores for autism were significantly higher than in the general population. This specific elevation in autism risk was not observed in the male subjects within the same group. This finding points to potential sex-specific pathways that warrant further investigation.</p>
<p>Age also played a role in the genetic profiles. For individuals over the age of 50 in the group without prior history, genetic scores for anxiety and Alzheimer’s disease were notably lower than in the group with prior history. In younger individuals, the differences were more pronounced regarding depression and neuroticism.</p>
<p>These results challenge the idea that increased screening for depression will identify all individuals at risk for suicide. “A tenet in suicide prevention has been that we just need to screen people better for associated conditions like depression,” said Hilary Coon, a professor of psychiatry at the University of Utah and the study’s lead author. “But for those who actually have different underlying vulnerabilities, then increasing that screening might not help for them.”</p>
<p>The study suggests that a focus solely on diagnosing mental illness may miss a substantial portion of the at-risk population. If an individual does not possess the genetic vulnerability for depression, they may never develop the symptoms that current screening tools are designed to catch.</p>
<p>Coon emphasized the need to broaden the scope of suicide research. “That is important in widening our view of who may be at risk,” she said. “We need to start to think about aspects leading to risk in different ways.”</p>
<p>The authors acknowledge several limitations to their work. The study participants were primarily of European ancestry, which means the findings may not apply equally to other genetic populations. The researchers relied on medical records to determine prior suicidality, and it is possible that some individuals had undocumented histories of distress.</p>
<p>Additionally, while the polygenic scores provide a measure of biological risk, they do not determine destiny. Environmental factors and life experiences play a massive role in suicide risk. The current study did not account for social or environmental exposures that might interact with these genetic profiles.</p>
<p>Future research will need to investigate non-psychiatric factors that might contribute to mortality in this group. Researchers are interested in exploring the roles of physical health conditions, chronic pain, and inflammation. Understanding how these factors intersect with genetic liability could lead to more targeted prevention strategies.</p>
<p>The study provides a foundation for categorizing suicide risk into more precise subtypes. By recognizing that not all suicide deaths stem from the same biological origins, medical professionals may eventually develop better tools to identify those who currently fly under the radar.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2840358" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Genetic Liabilities to Neuropsychiatric Conditions in Suicide Deaths With No Prior Suicidality</a>,” was authored by Hilary Coon, Andrey A. Shabalin, Eric T. Monson, Emily DiBlasi, Seonggyun Han, Lisa M. Baird, Erin A. Kaufman, Douglas Tharp, Michael J. Staley, Zhe Yu, Qingqin S. Li, Sarah M. Colbert, Amanda V. Bakian, Anna R. Docherty, Andrew M. McIntosh, Heather C. Whalley, Dierdre Amaro, David K. Crockett, Niamh Mullins, and Brooks R. Keeshin.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/long-term-calorie-restriction-may-slow-biological-aging-in-the-brain/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Long-term calorie restriction may slow biological aging in the brain</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 3rd 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study suggests that restricting calorie intake over a lifetime may slow the biological aging of support cells in the primate brain. The research provides evidence that a thirty percent reduction in calories preserves the metabolic function of cells responsible for insulating nerve fibers. These findings were published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.70298" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Aging Cell</a></em>.</p>
<p>The brain relies on complex networks of communication to function correctly. This communication depends heavily on white matter, which consists of nerve fibers coated in a protective fatty substance called myelin. As primates age, this white matter tends to degrade. The loss of integrity in these areas often correlates with cognitive decline and slower processing speeds.</p>
<p>Scientists have sought to understand the cellular mechanisms that drive this age-related deterioration. Much of the focus has shifted toward glial cells, which were once considered merely supportive glue for neurons. It is now understood that glial cells, specifically oligodendrocytes and microglia, actively maintain brain health. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin, while microglia act as the brain’s immune system.</p>
<p>When these cells malfunction due to aging, they may contribute to the breakdown of white matter. Previous research in rodents has indicated that reducing calorie intake can extend lifespan and delay age-related diseases. However, it remains less clear how such interventions affect the complex brains of higher primates.</p>
<p>To investigate this, a team of researchers examined the effects of long-term calorie restriction on the rhesus monkey brain. The rhesus monkey serves as a robust model for human aging due to similarities in brain structure and cognitive decline patterns. The study utilized brain tissue from animals involved in a long-running project by the National Institute on Aging.</p>
<p>The research was led by Ana T. Vitantonio and Tara L. Moore from the Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, alongside colleagues from the National Institutes of Health. They aimed to determine if a diet with thirty percent fewer calories could alter the gene expression profiles of aging glial cells. The study compared these profiles against those of monkeys fed a standard diet.</p>
<p>The researchers analyzed brain tissue from the anterior corpus callosum, a region dense with white matter. They employed a technique called single nuclei RNA sequencing. This method allowed the team to identify which genes were active in thousands of individual cells. The primary sequencing dataset included samples from ten male rhesus monkeys.</p>
<p>The subjects ranged in age from 22 to 34 years, which is considered old for this species. Some animals had been on a calorie-restricted diet for over two decades. Others had consumed a standard diet for the same duration. The researchers also validated their findings using microscope imaging techniques on tissue from fourteen male and female monkeys.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that while the total number of glial cells remained similar between groups, their internal molecular operations differed significantly. Oligodendrocytes from the calorie-restricted group showed signs of better metabolic health. These cells expressed higher levels of genes involved in glycolysis and fatty acid biosynthesis.</p>
<p>These pathways are essential for generating energy and creating the lipids required to maintain the myelin sheath. In contrast, oligodendrocytes from the control group exhibited gene signatures associated with stress and immune activation. This suggests that a standard diet may leave these cells more vulnerable to the wear and tear of aging.</p>
<p>The study also identified a specific subpopulation of oligodendrocytes that appeared to be specialized for interacting with nerve axons. The researchers termed these “synaptic” oligodendrocytes. In the calorie-restricted animals, this group of cells upregulated a gene called NLGN1. This gene codes for a protein that helps form physical connections between cells.</p>
<p>To confirm this genetic finding, the researchers used imaging to look at the physical position of these cells in the brain tissue. They found that oligodendrocytes expressing NLGN1 were located significantly closer to nerve axons. This proximity may facilitate better communication and metabolic support between the myelin-producing cells and the nerves they insulate.</p>
<p>The researchers also examined microglia, the immune cells that patrol the brain for damage. Microglia in the calorie-restricted group showed gene expression patterns linked to protein synthesis and metabolism. Conversely, microglia in the control group showed elevated signs of inflammation and oxidative stress.</p>
<p>A notable discovery involved a specific subset of microglia that appeared to be filled with myelin debris. These cells expressed genes suggesting they had engulfed damaged myelin but failed to process it effectively. The accumulation of such cells is often seen in neurodegenerative conditions. The study found that calorie-restricted monkeys had a significantly lower abundance of these debris-filled microglia.</p>
<p>This reduction implies that calorie restriction might either prevent myelin damage from occurring or improve the microglia’s ability to clear waste. The control group, having more of these cells, displayed a higher burden of tissue pathology. This distinction highlights a potential mechanism by which diet influences neuroinflammation.</p>
<p>In addition to analyzing resident brain cells, the team looked for immune cells that had infiltrated from the rest of the body. T cells are immune cells that typically reside in the blood but can enter the brain during aging or disease. The presence of T cells in the brain parenchyma is generally considered a sign of compromised health.</p>
<p>The study quantified the density of T cells in the white matter. The researchers found that while the total density did not differ significantly between the two groups, the relationship with age did. In control animals, T cell numbers tended to increase more steeply with age. The calorie-restricted group showed a slower rate of T cell accumulation over time.</p>
<p>This trend suggests that a lower calorie diet might mitigate the age-associated breakdown of the brain’s protective barriers. It may also reflect a general reduction in systemic inflammation. The findings provide evidence that the protective effects of calorie restriction extend to the cellular environment of the primate brain.</p>
<p>There are some limitations to the study. The primary genetic sequencing was conducted only on male subjects due to tissue availability. Although validation experiments included females, sex-specific differences in response to diet remain an area for further exploration. Additionally, the sample size was relatively small, which is common in studies involving non-human primates.</p>
<p>The study is observational and relies on post-mortem tissue. This means the researchers captured a snapshot of the cellular state rather than observing the process in real time. Consequently, the study identifies associations rather than definitive causal mechanisms. Future research will need to uncover the precise molecular signals that link diet to these changes in gene expression.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the research offers a detailed view of how lifestyle interventions may influence brain aging at the transcriptomic level. It suggests that the metabolic reprogramming of glial cells is a viable target for maintaining white matter health. The findings reinforce the potential of dietary strategies to promote resilience in the aging brain.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.70298" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Calorie Restriction Attenuates Transcriptional Aging Signatures in White Matter Oligodendrocytes and Immune Cells of the Monkey Brain</a>,” was authored by Ana T. Vitantonio, Christina Dimovasili, Yuchen Liu, Bingtian Ye, Jou-Hsuan Roxie Lee, Molly Hartigan, Benjamin Bouchard, Madelyn Ray, Bryce Conner, Kelli L. Vaughan, Julie A. Mattison, Tara L. Moore, Chao Zhang, and Douglas L. Rosene.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/distinct-neural-pathways-allow-the-prefrontal-cortex-to-fine-tune-visual-processing/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Distinct neural pathways allow the prefrontal cortex to fine-tune visual processing</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 3rd 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2025.10.037" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Neuron</a></em> reveals that the brain’s executive center sends highly specialized, context-dependent instructions to the visual system rather than a generic broadcast signal. The findings demonstrate that distinct neural circuits adjust how animals perceive their environment based on their level of arousal and physical movement.</p>
<p>The brain is often described as a hierarchy. The prefrontal cortex sits at the top of this organization. It acts as a command center that guides thoughts, actions, and emotions.</p>
<p>For this system to work, the prefrontal cortex must communicate with sensory regions that process raw information from the outside world. One of the most important relationships in this hierarchy is the connection between the executive center and the visual cortex. This connection allows the brain to interpret what the eyes see based on current goals or needs.</p>
<p>Researchers have debated the nature of this communication for years. Some theories propose that the prefrontal cortex acts like a global volume dial. In this view, it sends a uniform signal to boost or suppress activity across the entire brain.</p>
<p>Other theories suggest a more precise system of control. These hypotheses argue that the brain sends tailored messages to specific regions depending on the immediate situation. Validating these theories requires mapping the exact wiring of the brain and observing it in action.</p>
<p>A team of neuroscientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology led the investigation into these circuits. The senior author of the paper is Mriganka Sur, a professor in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences. The study was led by Sofie Ährlund-Richter, a postdoctoral researcher in Sur’s laboratory.</p>
<p>The researchers sought to understand how internal states shape vision. They wanted to know how being excited, stressed, or physically active changes the way the brain processes images. To do this, they focused on two specific subregions of the prefrontal cortex in mice.</p>
<p>The first region is the anterior cingulate area. This part of the brain is often associated with attention and error detection. The second region is the orbitofrontal cortex. This area is typically linked to decision-making and sensory integration.</p>
<p>The team designed a comprehensive set of experiments to track the flow of information. They utilized mice as their model organism. The biological similarities between mouse and human brains allow scientists to draw meaningful parallels regarding neural organization.</p>
<p>The first phase of the study involved detailed anatomical mapping. The researchers used viral tracers to visualize the pathways of nerve fibers. These tracers allowed them to see exactly where neurons in the prefrontal cortex sent their long extensions, called axons.</p>
<p>They found that the connections were not random. The anterior cingulate area and the orbitofrontal cortex targeted different layers of the visual cortex. This physical separation suggests that they influence the visual system through distinct mechanisms.</p>
<p>The anterior cingulate area connected to neurons in the deeper layers of the visual cortex. In contrast, the orbitofrontal cortex connected to separate layers that house different types of cells. This structural difference provided the first clue that the two regions perform different jobs.</p>
<p>Following the anatomical work, the researchers moved to functional imaging. They used a technique called two-photon calcium imaging. This method allows scientists to watch neurons fire in real time by detecting changes in calcium levels inside the cells.</p>
<p>The mice were placed on a comfortable running wheel. They were shown various visual stimuli, such as patterned images or naturalistic movies. The researchers recorded the activity of the axons arriving in the visual cortex from the prefrontal regions.</p>
<p>The team also manipulated the arousal levels of the mice. They delivered small, harmless puffs of air to the animals. This stimulus caused a temporary state of alertness or excitement.</p>
<p>The recordings revealed a clear division of labor between the two brain regions. The anterior cingulate area acted as a signal enhancer. It transmitted strong visual information to the visual cortex.</p>
<p>This activity scaled directly with the arousal of the animal. When the mouse was alert, the anterior cingulate area became more active. It appeared to help the visual cortex sharpen its focus on the images being viewed.</p>
<p>Sur noted the specificity of these connections. “That’s the major conclusion of this paper: There are targeted projections for targeted impact,” said Sur.</p>
<p>The orbitofrontal cortex displayed a different pattern of activity. It conveyed very little information about the visual scene itself. Instead, it responded primarily to the internal state of the animal.</p>
<p>This region only became active when the arousal of the mouse crossed a high threshold. When it did activate, it did not sharpen the image. Instead, it appeared to suppress or dampen the processing of visual information.</p>
<p>Ährlund-Richter suggests this creates a balance in the brain. “These two PFC subregions are kind of balancing each other,” Ährlund-Richter said. “While one will enhance stimuli that might be more uncertain or more difficult to detect, the other one kind of dampens strong stimuli that might be irrelevant.”</p>
<p>This balance likely helps the animal navigate complex environments. Moderate arousal might trigger the anterior cingulate area to help the mouse focus on potential threats or food. Extreme arousal might trigger the orbitofrontal cortex to filter out distractions so the animal can react quickly.</p>
<p>The researchers also investigated whether these brain regions sent the same messages to other parts of the cortex. They compared the signals sent to the visual cortex with those sent to the motor cortex. The motor cortex is responsible for controlling voluntary movement.</p>
<p>The study found that the messages were customized for the recipient. The motor cortex received detailed information about how fast the mouse was running. The visual cortex, however, only received a binary signal indicating whether the mouse was moving or staying still.</p>
<p>This finding challenges the idea of a global broadcast signal. It implies that the prefrontal cortex constructs specific data packets for different downstream systems. The visual system gets what it needs to process sight, while the motor system gets what it needs to coordinate limbs.</p>
<p>To confirm these observations, the team used chemogenetics. This technology allows researchers to selectively silence specific neural pathways using designer drugs. They blocked the connections from the prefrontal subregions to the visual cortex.</p>
<p>When they blocked the anterior cingulate area, the visual cortex failed to sharpen its responses during arousal. The beneficial effect of alertness on vision disappeared. This proved that the anterior cingulate area is required for focused attention.</p>
<p>When they blocked the orbitofrontal cortex, the dampening effect vanished. The visual cortex remained highly responsive even during high stress. This confirmed that the orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for preventing overstimulation.</p>
<p>The authors concluded that prefrontal feedback is highly modular. It is not a blunt instrument but a precision tool. This organization allows the brain to fine-tune sensory processing in a way that supports survival.</p>
<p>There are limitations to the study that warrant consideration. The research was conducted in mice, and human brain circuitry is significantly more elaborate. Further investigation is needed to verify if these exact parallel circuits exist in primates and humans.</p>
<p>Future research will likely focus on how these circuits change during learning. The current study looked at spontaneous behavior and simple visual tasks. It remains to be seen how these feedback loops adapt when an animal learns a complex new skill.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2025.10.037" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Distinct roles of prefrontal subregion feedback to the primary visual cortex across behavioral states</a>,” was authored by Sofie Ährlund-Richter, Yuma Osako, Kyle R. Jenks, Emma Odom, Haoyang Huang, Don B. Arnold, and Mriganka Sur.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/parental-divorce-linked-to-higher-stroke-risk-in-older-adults/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Parental divorce linked to higher stroke risk in older adults</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 3rd 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>Recent research indicates that experiencing parental divorce during childhood is associated with a significantly higher likelihood of suffering a stroke in old age. This correlation persists even among individuals who did not suffer physical or sexual abuse as children. The study detailing these associations was published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316580" target="_blank">PLOS One</a></em>.</p>
<p>Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability in the United States. Medical professionals identify various risk factors for this acute cardiovascular event. Common risks include smoking, high blood pressure, and diabetes. Researchers are increasingly looking at events that occur early in life to understand health outcomes decades later. Adverse Childhood Experiences, often referred to as ACEs, encompass a range of distressing events. These can include abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.</p>
<p>Previous scientific literature has established a link between high numbers of ACEs and poor health in adulthood. However, many past inquiries grouped parental divorce with severe forms of abuse or neglect. This made it difficult to determine if divorce itself was an independent risk factor. </p>
<p>Researchers Mary Kate Schilke, Philip Baiden, and Esme Fuller-Thomson sought to isolate the specific impact of parental separation. Schilke is affiliated with Tyndale University in Canada. Baiden works with The University of Texas at Arlington. Fuller-Thomson is associated with the University of Toronto.</p>
<p>The team aimed to fill a gap in existing knowledge regarding older adults. Most strokes occur in later life, yet previous studies often focused on younger populations. The investigators also wanted to exclude the confounding effects of childhood physical and sexual abuse. By removing individuals with those trauma histories from the data, the researchers could better assess the specific association between the dissolution of a parents’ marriage and stroke risk.</p>
<p>The investigators utilized data from the 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. This system is a large, telephone-based survey conducted annually by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey collects information on health-related risk behaviors and chronic conditions across the United States. </p>
<p>The researchers focused on a specific subset of this data. They examined responses from adults aged 65 and older living in eight specific states. These states administered an optional module of questions specifically regarding adverse childhood experiences.</p>
<p>The final analytic sample included 13,205 older adults. To ensure the focus remained on divorce, the team excluded any respondents who reported childhood physical or sexual abuse. The survey asked participants if a doctor or health professional had ever told them they had a stroke. It also asked if their parents were separated or divorced before the respondent turned 18.</p>
<p>The analysis revealed that 7.3 percent of the respondents had experienced a stroke. Approximately 13.9 percent of the sample reported that their parents had divorced during their childhood. The researchers used binary logistic regression to analyze the relationship between these two factors. This statistical method allows scientists to estimate the odds of an outcome while accounting for other influencing variables.</p>
<p>The data indicated a distinct association. Individuals who experienced parental divorce had significantly higher odds of having a stroke compared to those from intact families. The initial calculation suggested a risk increase of 1.73 times. </p>
<p>The researchers then adjusted the model to account for socioeconomic status, including education and income. They also controlled for health behaviors such as smoking and physical activity. Even after these adjustments, the association remained strong.</p>
<p>The fully adjusted model showed that respondents with a history of parental divorce had 1.61 times higher odds of having a stroke. This represents a 61 percent increase in risk relative to their peers. This magnitude is comparable to well-known medical risk factors. For instance, the study found that diabetes increased stroke odds by 1.37 times. A diagnosis of depression increased the odds by 1.76 times.</p>
<p>The study examined potential differences between men and women. Previous research using older data suggested the link might only exist for men. The current analysis found that the association held true for both sexes. While men in the sample had a higher baseline risk of stroke overall, the history of parental divorce increased the risk for women as well. The interaction between sex and divorce was not statistically significant. This implies the mechanism connecting divorce to stroke operates similarly across genders in this age group.</p>
<p>The researchers proposed several theories to explain this biological connection. One primary hypothesis involves the “biological embedding” of stress. Parental divorce can be a source of chronic stress for children. It often involves parental conflict, household tension, and economic instability. Prolonged exposure to such stress may disrupt the body’s physiological systems.</p>
<p>The authors highlight the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This is the body’s primary stress response system. It regulates hormones such as cortisol. Chronic activation of this system during sensitive developmental periods can lead to long-term dysregulation. </p>
<p>Dysregulation of the stress response system is known to contribute to cardiovascular disease. It is possible that the stress of divorce alters this biological pathway, creating a vulnerability that manifests as stroke in later years.</p>
<p>The study also noted the potential role of socioeconomic factors. Divorce often results in a loss of household income. Childhood poverty is a recognized social determinant of health. It is linked to higher rates of obesity and chronic stress. </p>
<p>Although the study controlled for current adult income, it did not have data on childhood financial status. The economic hardship following a divorce could be a contributing pathway to the observed health risks.</p>
<p>There are limitations to this study that affect how the findings should be interpreted. The research used a cross-sectional design. This means it captured a snapshot of data at a single point in time. Such a design identifies associations but cannot definitively prove cause and effect. It is impossible to say with certainty that the divorce caused the strokes based solely on this data.</p>
<p>The study relied on self-reported information. Participants had to recall events from their childhood and report their own medical diagnoses. Memory can be imperfect, and self-reporting is subject to recall bias. However, the researchers noted that self-reports of stroke diagnoses generally align well with medical records.</p>
<p>Another limitation involves the specific generation examined. The participants were all born before 1957. During their childhoods, divorce was far less common than it is today. It was also more socially stigmatized. The experience of parental divorce for this cohort may have involved higher levels of social isolation or shame. </p>
<p>This unique social context could have intensified the stress experienced by these children. It is unclear if the same strong association would be found in younger generations where divorce is more normative.</p>
<p>The authors suggest that future studies should use longitudinal designs. Tracking individuals over time would provide clearer evidence of causality. Researchers should also investigate the timing of the divorce. The age at which a child experiences the separation might influence the health impact. Additionally, information on the level of conflict and the involvement of the non-custodial parent would add nuance to the understanding of these risks.</p>
<p>The findings underscore the potential long-term health consequences of early life adversity. The study suggests that the impact of family disruption can extend well into older adulthood. It contributes to a growing body of evidence linking social history with physical health.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316580" target="_blank">Parental divorce’s long shadow: Elevated stroke risk among older Americans</a>,” was authored by Mary Kate Schilke, Philip Baiden, and Esme Fuller-Thomson.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/a-field-experiment-reveals-the-psychology-behind-the-batman-effect/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">A field experiment reveals the psychology behind the “Batman effect”</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Dec 3rd 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent experiment conducted in the Milan subway system suggests that the presence of a costumed superhero can significantly increase the willingness of commuters to help a stranger. The findings indicate that unexpected visual stimuli in public spaces may disrupt the psychological “autopilot” that governs daily routines, making individuals more aware of their surroundings and the needs of others. The research was published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s44184-025-00171-5" target="_blank">npj Mental Health Research</a>.</p>
<p>Commuting often induces a state of mental detachment where individuals navigate familiar environments with minimal cognitive effort. This state allows people to conserve mental energy during repetitive tasks. Researchers from the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan sought to understand how breaking this monotony affects social interactions. Their primary focus was prosocial behavior, which encompasses voluntary actions designed to benefit other people.</p>
<p>Previous psychological literature establishes that helping behaviors stem from various motivations, including empathy, social norms, or the alleviation of personal guilt. While internal motivations are well-studied, the external environmental factors that trigger these impulses are less understood. The research team hypothesized that a surprising event could jolt commuters out of their internal focus. They proposed that this shift in attention might mimic the effects of mindfulness.</p>
<p>Mindfulness is defined as a non-judgmental awareness of the present moment. It is typically cultivated through active practice and meditation. However, the investigators theorized that situational interruptions could force a similar state of awareness without voluntary effort. By disrupting the script of a daily commute, an unexpected event might make passengers more sensitive to social cues they would otherwise ignore.</p>
<p>To test this hypothesis, the authors designed a field experiment in a real-world setting. “We conducted an experimental field study on the Milan subway,” Professor Pagnini explains, “observing the behavior of 138 passengers.” The researchers utilized two different scenarios to measure the helpfulness of the commuters.</p>
<p>In the first scenario, which served as the control condition, a female experimenter boarded a subway car. She wore a prosthetic belly to appear pregnant. An observer accompanied her but did not interact with her. This observer quietly recorded whether any seated passengers offered their seats to the woman. This baseline measurement allowed the team to assess standard levels of courtesy on the Milan metro.</p>
<p>The second scenario introduced a significant disruption to the standard subway environment. The same researcher posing as a pregnant woman entered the train car. Simultaneously, another researcher dressed in a Batman costume entered through a different door approximately three meters away. The costume included the character’s iconic cape, logo, and a cowl with pointed ears.</p>
<p>To ensure ethical standards were met, the mask did not cover the actor’s entire face. This decision was made to prevent the costume from appearing threatening or frightening to the passengers. The researchers ensured there was no interaction between the pregnant woman and the person dressed as Batman. They acted as strangers to one another.</p>
<p>The results showed a substantial difference in behavior between the two groups. In the control condition where no superhero was present, 37.66 percent of passengers offered their seats. This aligns with general expectations of public transport etiquette where many remain seated.</p>
<p>However, the introduction of the unexpected element changed the dynamic in the train car. “Faced with this unexpected encounter,” the authors report, “passengers were significantly more likely to offer their seats: 67.21% of passengers offered their seats in the presence of Batman, or more than two out of three.” The likelihood of a passenger standing up nearly doubled when the environment contained a novelty.</p>
<p>The researchers also collected demographic data on the helpful passengers. In both the control and the experimental conditions, the majority of those who offered their seats were women. The average age of the helpers was approximately 41 years old. This consistency suggests that the presence of Batman did not appeal to a specific demographic but rather influenced the general population in the car.</p>
<p>A particularly revealing aspect of the study emerged during follow-up interviews. Researchers approached the individuals who gave up their seats to ask about their motivations. “Furthermore,” the professor notes, “44% of those who offered their seats in the experimental condition reported not having seen Batman.” This statistic presents a counterintuitive finding regarding the mechanism of the effect.</p>
<p>It suggests that the prosocial behavior was not necessarily a direct reaction to seeing the costume. Instead, the disruption caused by the character’s entrance may have altered the atmosphere of the train car. If some passengers noticed the superhero and shifted their attention, that shift may have rippled through the crowd. This phenomenon aligns with theories of social contagion, where changes in gaze or posture spread rapidly among a group.</p>
<p>The researchers interpret this through the lens of attention and awareness. “Our findings,” Pagnini explains, “are similar to those of previous research linking present-moment awareness (mindfulness) to greater prosociality; this may create a context in which individuals become more attuned to social cues.” The disruption forces the brain to assess the immediate environment. Once the brain is engaged with the “here and now,” the passenger is more likely to process the visual cue of the pregnant woman.</p>
<p>“Unlike traditional mindfulness interventions that require active engagement, this study highlights how situational interruptions alone may be sufficient to produce similar effects,” Pagnini adds. This supports the concept of the “pique technique” in psychology. This technique relies on using atypical requests or stimuli to break a refusal script. By piquing curiosity, the stimulus engages cognitive processing that overrides automatic dismissal.</p>
<p>There is an alternative explanation rooted in the symbolism of the character. Batman is a cultural icon associated with justice, protection, and heroism. It is possible that the costume acted as a “prime.” Priming occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus. Seeing a symbol of justice might subconsciously activate norms of chivalry or moral duty.</p>
<p>“The figure of Batman,” Pagnini concludes, “could therefore play a prosocial priming role.” However, the authors note that priming studies have faced challenges with replication in recent years. The fact that nearly half of the helpers did not report seeing the character weakens the argument for direct visual priming. The generalized increase in awareness remains a strong competing theory.</p>
<p>The study does have limitations that affect the breadth of its conclusions. The experiment took place in a specific cultural setting in Italy. Social norms regarding public transportation and courtesy vary significantly across different regions and cultures. What holds true in Milan may not apply in Tokyo or New York City.</p>
<p>Additionally, the experiment relied on a character with positive associations. Batman is generally viewed as a hero. It remains unclear if a neutral oddity or a character with negative connotations would produce the same result. If the effect is purely about disrupting routine, a villain might also increase seat-offering. If the effect relies on the positive symbolism of the hero, a villain might decrease helping behavior.</p>
<p>The demographic data was estimated by observers rather than self-reported by every passenger. This introduces a possibility of error regarding the age and gender of the participants. Future research would need to control for these variables more strictly.</p>
<p>Despite these caveats, the implications for urban design and public policy are noteworthy. The study suggests that introducing “positive disruptions” into public spaces could foster a more cooperative environment. “This suggests a potential mechanism through which novelty and unpredictability promote prosocial behavior,” the authors write.</p>
<p>Cities often strive to make transit as predictable and efficient as possible. However, this efficiency may encourage the social isolation of the autopilot state. Introducing art installations, performances, or unexpected visual elements could serve a functional social purpose. By momentarily engaging commuters, these elements might lower social barriers and increase awareness of collective needs.</p>
<p>Future research will need to disentangle the specific mechanisms at play. Investigators must determine whether the effect is driven by the emotional valence of the surprise or the mere fact of the surprise itself. Controlled laboratory experiments could help isolate these variables. For now, the data indicates that a break in the mundane can serve as a catalyst for kindness.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s44184-025-00171-5" target="_blank">Unexpected events and prosocial behavior: the Batman effect</a>,” was authored by Francesco Pagnini, Francesca Grosso, Cesare Cavalera, Valentina Poletti, Giacomo Andrea Minazzi, Anna Missoni, Laura Bogani, and Mauro Bertolotti.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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