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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/how-you-view-time-may-influence-depression-by-shaping-your-sleep-rhythm/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">How you view time may influence depression by shaping your sleep rhythm</a>
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<p><p>People vary in how they relate to time. Some focus on the future and set long-term goals, while others dwell on past regrets or live only for the present. At the same time, people also differ in their daily rhythms — with some rising early and others staying up late. A new study published in Personality and Individual Differences suggests that these two tendencies may work together to influence mood. The study provides evidence that both how people think about time and when they prefer to be active during the day are related to depressive symptoms.</p>
<p>Previous research has shown that both time perspective and chronotype — a person’s preferred timing of sleep and activity — are associated with mental health, including depression. People who have a more negative view of the past or who believe they lack control over their lives in the present tend to report more depressive symptoms. Likewise, people who are more evening-oriented tend to experience more mood problems than morning-oriented individuals.</p>
<p>These two areas of research have developed largely in parallel. While each has been linked to depression separately, few studies have examined how they might interact. Some researchers have speculated that chronotype could shape how people think about time, or vice versa. </p>
<p>The author of the current study, <a href="http://psychometria.uw.edu.pl/zespol/konrad/" target="_blank">Professor Konrad S. Jankowski</a> of the University of Warsaw, proposed that a person’s time perspective might influence their chronotype. For example, people who are more future-oriented may be more motivated to wake up early and stick to a schedule in order to pursue long-term goals.</p>
<p>“More and more people suffer from depression, so it’s important to identify predisposing factors to identify vulnerable individuals and provide them tailored protective measures,” explained Jankowski, the director of the Department of Psychometrics and Psychological Diagnosis at Faculty of Psychology. “We already knew that how people think about time (for example, focusing on the past or planning for the future) and whether they’re a ‘morning person’ or ‘night owl’ both relate to mood. I wanted to see if orienting towards a given time horizon may shape habitual sleep times that in turn impact depressive symptoms.”</p>
<p>“This is the first study to suggest that our sleep rhythm might be shaped by the way we think about time. It’s a reminder that our mental habits and daily routines are closely linked—and both matter for emotional well-being.”</p>
<p>The study included 343 adults, most of whom were university students. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 63, with a strong majority identifying as women. They completed an online survey that included measures of time perspective, chronotype, and depressive symptoms. The study excluded individuals who had recently crossed time zones, worked overnight shifts, or were taking sleep or depression-related medications, in order to avoid confounding factors.</p>
<p>Time perspective was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, a questionnaire that assesses how people relate to the past, present, and future. It includes five dimensions: past-negative (a tendency to dwell on negative past events), past-positive (a fondness for positive memories), present-hedonistic (a focus on pleasure and immediate gratification), present-fatalistic (a belief that one’s fate is out of their control), and future-oriented (a tendency to plan for and focus on long-term goals). Jankowski also calculated a measure called “deviation from balanced time perspective,” which reflects an unbalanced or unhealthy time orientation.</p>
<p>Chronotype was measured using a shortened version of the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire. Higher scores on this scale indicate a preference for earlier wake and sleep times. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, a widely used measure that captures both clinical and subclinical symptoms.</p>
<p>The results showed that depressive symptoms were related to several dimensions of time perspective. People who had a more negative view of the past, who felt less control over their lives in the present, or who lacked a clear future orientation reported higher levels of depression. Lower scores on the past-positive and future-oriented scales were also linked to more depressive symptoms, as was a less balanced time perspective overall.</p>
<p>Chronotype was also linked to both depression and time perspective. Evening-oriented individuals reported more depressive symptoms. They also scored lower on the future and past-positive dimensions and had a less balanced time perspective profile.</p>
<p>When Jankowski tested whether chronotype mediated the relationship between time perspective and depressive symptoms, he found partial mediation for two specific dimensions: future orientation and past-positive. People who scored higher on either of these dimensions were more likely to be morning-oriented, which in turn was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. </p>
<p>“People who look ahead with hope or remember their past in a positive light tend to go to bed and wake up earlier — and they usually feel better, too,” Jankowski told PsyPost. “Thinking about good memories before bed or focusing on future goals can actually help you sleep in sync with the world’s morning routines, which might give your mood a healthy boost.”</p>
<p>In statistical terms, morningness accounted for about half of the total association between future orientation and depression, and a smaller portion of the link between past-positive thinking and depression. “The effects weren’t huge, but they do matter,” Jankowski explained. “Even small differences in mindset and sleep habits can add up over time to affect how we feel day to day.”</p>
<p>Chronotype did not mediate the association between an unbalanced time perspective and depressive symptoms, which suggests that not all time perspective effects on mood are explained by sleep–wake patterns.</p>
<p>“I was surprised that a positive view of the past mattered more for being a morning person than a lack of negative memories,” Jankowski said. “It seems that recalling good experiences, rather than simply avoiding bad ones, is what helps people keep healthier sleep patterns.”</p>
<p>These findings remained consistent even after accounting for age and gender. The study also confirmed previously reported gender differences in depression, with women reporting more symptoms than men. No significant gender differences were found for chronotype or most time perspective dimensions.</p>
<p>As with any cross-sectional study, these findings cannot prove causality. While the proposed model suggests that time perspective influences chronotype, which in turn affects mood, other interpretations are possible. For example, it could be that mood affects how people think about time or when they prefer to sleep. </p>
<p>Future research could build on these findings by using longitudinal designs to clarify the direction of the observed relationships. Experimental studies could test whether interventions aimed at modifying time perspective or chronotype can reduce depressive symptoms. The researcher also plans to explore how specific sleep behaviors, such as bedtime routines or use of electronic devices, may influence the link between time perspective and mood.</p>
<p>One important caveat is that these patterns reflect average tendencies across the group and may not apply to every individual. Depression is a complex condition influenced by many factors, including genetics, life experiences, and social context.</p>
<p>“A common misunderstanding would be to assume these patterns apply to everyone or could ‘fix’ depression on their own,” Jankowski explained. “The results reflect group-level trends, not individual rules — so while the links between time perspective, sleep habits, and mood are clear on average, they won’t hold true for every person. These factors can support well-being in some people, but they’re only part of a much bigger picture.”</p>
<p>Still, the findings raise the possibility that helping people think more positively about their past or plan more effectively for the future could promote healthier daily rhythms and improve emotional well-being. If replicated and extended, this line of research could inform new strategies for supporting mental health that incorporate both psychological and behavioral components.</p>
<p>“My next goal is to dig deeper into how time perspective connects to depression by looking at specific sleep habits and routines,” Jankowski said. “I want to see which sleep hygiene behaviors — like bedtime consistency, screen use, or relaxation before sleep — help explain the link between how we think about time and how we feel.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113481" target="_blank">Time perspective and depressive symptoms: mediating role of chronotype</a>,” was authored by Konrad S. Jankowski.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/adhd-is-linked-to-early-and-stable-differences-in-brains-limbic-system/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">ADHD is linked to early and stable differences in brain’s limbic system</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 16th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>Children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) appear to show early and stable disruptions in a key brain system involved in emotional and cognitive processing, according to new research published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2025.09.022" target="_blank">Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging</a></em>. The findings suggest that ADHD involves differences in how emotional and cognitive brain circuits are physically wired during development. Although these differences are subtle, they could play a role in shaping the severity of symptoms across childhood and adolescence.</p>
<p>ADHD has increasingly been conceptualized as a disorder that affects the brain’s connectivity. Many studies have focused on the brain’s outer cortical regions, such as the frontal lobes, which are involved in attention and executive function. However, less is known about how deeper brain structures, like those in the limbic system, develop in children with ADHD.</p>
<p>The limbic system helps regulate emotion and integrates emotional signals with cognitive processes. It is also implicated in behavioral regulation, impulse control, and mood—all areas where people with ADHD often experience difficulties. Emotional dysregulation is especially common in ADHD and can affect quality of life. Given the limbic system’s role in emotion and behavior, the researchers aimed to better understand how its white matter—bundles of nerve fibers that connect brain regions—develops in youth with ADHD.</p>
<p>Longitudinal brain imaging research allows scientists to examine how brain structures change over time. By focusing on the limbic system and using more advanced imaging techniques than in past research, the authors of this study hoped to uncover developmental patterns that may help explain why some symptoms of ADHD persist or worsen during adolescence.</p>
<p>“Most research on ADHD brain development has focused on the outer regions of the brain, especially the frontal and striatal areas linked to attention and control,” said study author Michael Connaughton of the Department of Psychiatry at Trinity College Dublin.</p>
<p>“We wanted to look deeper – literally – into the limbic system, the brain’s emotional core that connects feeling, motivation, and focus. These regions have been difficult to study because of their complexity and location, but new MRI analysis techniques now let us see them with much finer detail. That opened the door to an important question: how do emotion-related brain pathways mature in ADHD as children move through adolescence?”</p>
<p>The researchers analyzed brain imaging data from 169 children and adolescents between the ages of 9 and 14. Among them, 72 had been diagnosed with ADHD, while 97 served as a comparison group without the disorder. Each participant underwent advanced diffusion MRI scans at three different time points spaced about 18 months apart. This approach allowed researchers to track changes in brain white matter over time.</p>
<p>“A key strength of this study was that ADHD was confirmed at multiple time points, showing that participants met diagnostic criteria both early and later in development,” Connaughton noted. “This repeated confirmation is crucial for developmental research – it ensures we’re capturing stable features of ADHD rather than temporary fluctuations that can occur as children grow and symptoms change.”</p>
<p>The researchers used an advanced brain imaging technique called diffusion kurtosis imaging to examine the structure of white matter in the brain. This method tracks how water molecules move through brain tissue. In healthy white matter, which consists of tightly packed, insulated nerve fibers, water tends to move in a highly organized way. When the structure is less orderly, water movement becomes more random. </p>
<p>One specific measurement, called kurtosis anisotropy, captures this level of organization. Higher kurtosis anisotropy values indicate that the white matter fibers are well-organized and likely well-myelinated, meaning they are coated with a protective layer that helps electrical signals travel efficiently. Lower values suggest that the white matter may be less developed or less efficient at supporting fast communication between brain regions.</p>
<p>The researchers focused on five major white matter tracts in the limbic system, including the cingulum bundle, which connects regions involved in both cognition and emotion. They also constructed brain network models to assess how different parts of the limbic system were interconnected in each participant.</p>
<p>Compared to the control group, the children with ADHD showed lower kurtosis anisotropy in both the left and right cingulum bundles. These reductions were present across all three time points, suggesting that the white matter differences were not due to temporary fluctuations but instead reflected a stable, early-emerging feature of ADHD. The pattern of white matter development followed a typical trajectory over time, but those with ADHD started out at a lower baseline and did not catch up to their peers.</p>
<p>“Individuals with ADHD showed stable reductions in limbic system white matter microstructural organisation, specifically lower kurtosis anisotropy in the bilateral cingulum bundle, across childhood and adolescence,” Connaughton told PsyPost.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the overall number and efficiency of connections within the limbic system did not significantly differ between the ADHD and control groups when considered as a whole. However, when the researchers looked at symptom severity within the ADHD group, a clearer picture emerged. Children and adolescents with more severe ADHD symptoms tended to have lower network density and reduced routing efficiency in their limbic system connections. </p>
<p>“What stood out most was that connectivity within the limbic system network predicted symptom severity rather than diagnosis,” Connaughton said. “This reinforces the view of ADHD as a dimensional condition, existing along a continuum rather than as a categorical divide.”</p>
<p>The relationship between limbic system connectivity and symptom severity was not explained by differences in the cingulum bundle, suggesting that both local microstructure and broader network organization may contribute to ADHD symptoms in distinct ways.</p>
<p>The differences observed in the study were relatively small in size, but they were consistent. “They aren’t large enough for clinical prediction, but in neurodevelopment, small differences across interconnected systems can still influence symptom severity and presentation,” Connaughton explained.</p>
<p>“Overall, the findings indicate that ADHD involves early, stable disruptions in limbic white matter development, particularly within the cingulum, and that reductions in white matter interconnecting limbic regions become more pronounced in individuals with more severe ADHD symptoms.”</p>
<p>Rather than pointing to a single brain abnormality, the results support the idea that ADHD involves distributed, small-scale differences across multiple systems. These differences may arise early in life and contribute to how symptoms unfold over time.</p>
<p>“These results don’t point to a single ‘ADHD biomarker,'” Connaughton said. “They reflect group- level trends, not diagnostic markers, and should be seen as part of a larger developmental picture that combines genetics, environment, and experience.”</p>
<p>The study offers important insights but also has some limitations. One issue is that the limbic system does not have a universally agreed-upon anatomical definition. Different studies may include or exclude certain regions, which can complicate comparisons across research. </p>
<p>The age range studied was also relatively narrow, focusing on the transition from late childhood into early adolescence. Some individuals with ADHD may show delayed brain development that catches up later in adolescence or early adulthood. Extending the research to cover a wider age range could help clarify whether the differences observed here persist, worsen, or diminish over time.</p>
<p>“We aim to track these developmental changes across the lifespan, extending our work into late adolescence and early adulthood when brain connectivity continues to evolve,” Connaughton explained. “By following individuals over longer periods and integrating imaging with genetic and behavioural data, we can begin to see how early brain differences unfold, stabilize, or adapt over time. The goal is to build a lifespan model of ADHD that helps both patients and clinicians understand why symptoms persist or remit across life.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2025.09.022" target="_blank">Limbic System White Matter in Children and Adolescents with ADHD: A Longitudinal Diffusion MRI Analysis</a>,” was authored by Michael Connaughton, Alexander Leemans, Timothy J. Silk, Vicki Anderson, Erik O’Hanlon, Robert Whelan, and Jane McGrath.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/a-massive-new-dream-database-reveals-clues-about-consciousness-during-sleep/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">A massive new dream database reveals clues about consciousness during sleep</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 15th 2025, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>An international collaboration of scientists has created the largest-ever public database of brain activity recordings and accompanying dream reports. In a first analysis of this resource, the researchers confirmed that dreaming is not exclusive to the rapid eye movement stage of sleep, finding that when conscious experiences occur in deeper sleep, the brain exhibits patterns of activity that more closely resemble wakefulness. The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61945-1">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>
<p>For millennia, dreams have been a source of fascination, but their systematic study is a modern endeavor with significant scientific applications. Investigating subjective experiences during sleep can inform research into consciousness itself, aid in understanding memory consolidation, and provide insights into sleep disorders like sleepwalking. Despite this importance, progress has been hampered by a persistent challenge: dream studies are resource-intensive, often resulting in small sample sizes that are difficult to compare across different laboratories.</p>
<p>To address this limitation, a consortium of 53 researchers from 37 institutions across 13 countries came together to build the Dream EEG and Mentation database, known as DREAM. Coordinated by Monash University in Australia and supported by organizations including the Bial Foundation, the project aimed to centralize and standardize decades of dream research.</p>
<p>The goal was to create a large-scale, publicly accessible resource that would allow scientists to conduct more robust and comprehensive analyses of the dreaming brain. Giulio Bernardi of the IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca in Italy, a contributor to the project, noted that the effort represents a decisive step in the scientific exploration of human consciousness by gathering vast amounts of research into a single place.</p>
<p>The team assembled data from 20 different studies, resulting in a collection of more than 2,600 records of awakenings from 505 participants. For each record, the database contains electroencephalography, or EEG, recordings, which measure the brain’s electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp. Some records also include magnetoencephalography, a related technique that measures magnetic fields produced by the brain’s electrical currents. These neurophysiological recordings are paired with a report from the participant upon waking.</p>
<p>To make the diverse datasets comparable, the researchers established a unified classification system for the reports. Upon awakening, if a participant recalled any subjective experience, it was labeled as “experience”. If they felt they had been dreaming but could not recall any specific content, a phenomenon sometimes called a “white dream,” it was classified as “experience without recall”. If they reported no conscious experience at all, it was marked as “no experience”. This standardized approach allows for powerful, large-scale comparisons that were previously not possible.</p>
<p>With the database established, the researchers performed an initial set of analyses to demonstrate its utility. First, they examined the relationship between dream reports and the stages of sleep. Sleep is not a uniform state; it cycles through distinct stages defined by specific patterns of brain activity. The best-known stage is rapid eye movement, or REM, sleep, characterized by an active brain, muscle paralysis, and quick eye movements. The other stages are collectively known as non-REM, or NREM, sleep, which progresses from light sleep (N1 and N2) to deep, slow-wave sleep (N3).</p>
<p>The analysis of the DREAM database confirmed a well-established pattern on a large scale. Reports of “experience” were most frequent following awakenings from REM sleep. During NREM sleep, the likelihood of recalling an experience decreased as sleep deepened. Awakenings from light N1 sleep yielded more dream reports than those from deeper N2 sleep, which in turn yielded more than awakenings from the deepest N3 stage. This finding reinforces the idea that while REM sleep is a fertile ground for dreaming, it is not the only stage where conscious experiences occur.</p>
<p>The team then explored what makes NREM sleep with dreams different from NREM sleep without dreams. They applied an automated sleep-scoring algorithm to the EEG data. Instead of assigning a single sleep stage to a period of brain activity, this algorithm provides a probability distribution, estimating the likelihood that the brain is in a wake, REM, or NREM state at any given moment.</p>
<p>During NREM sleep periods that were followed by a report of a dream, the algorithm detected an increased probability of wake-like brain activity compared to NREM periods with no reported experience. It suggests that dreaming during NREM sleep may occur when the brain enters a hybrid state that is neither fully asleep nor fully awake.</p>
<p>Finally, the researchers investigated whether it was possible to predict the presence of a dream from brain activity alone. They used artificial intelligence algorithms, training them on features extracted from the EEG signals in the 30 seconds before an awakening. These features included standard measures, like the power of brainwaves at different frequencies, as well as more complex, nonlinear characteristics of the signal. The algorithms were tasked with distinguishing between EEG patterns that led to a report of “experience” and those that led to “no experience”.</p>
<p>The models were able to make this distinction with an accuracy greater than chance for both NREM and REM sleep. For REM sleep, the classifiers performed particularly well, achieving a high degree of accuracy in predicting whether a participant was having a conscious experience. This result indicates that objective, measurable signatures of dreaming exist within the brain’s electrical activity. It opens the door to future technologies that could potentially identify moments of dreaming in real time without having to wake the sleeper.</p>
<p>The creators of the DREAM database acknowledge that this initial work is a starting point. The primary purpose of the study was to present the database itself and demonstrate its potential. Future research can use this resource to ask more detailed questions. For example, while the current analysis could predict the presence or absence of a dream, substantially more data may be needed to identify the neural correlates of specific dream content, such as seeing a face or hearing a voice.</p>
<p>The database is designed to be a living project, open to new contributions from researchers around the world. By providing a large, standardized, and open platform, the consortium hopes to accelerate the pace of dream research. This collaborative approach may help scientists answer fundamental questions about the function of dreams and the nature of consciousness itself. By studying the brain as it generates entire worlds from within, researchers gain a unique window into the processes that give rise to subjective experience.</p>
<p>The study, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61945-1">“A dream EEG and mentation database</a>,” was authored by William Wong, Rubén Herzog, Kátia Cristine Andrade, Thomas Andrillon, Draulio Barros de Araujo, Isabelle Arnulf, Somayeh Ataei, Giulia Avvenuti, Benjamin Baird, Michele Bellesi, Damiana Bergamo, Giulio Bernardi, Mark Blagrove, Nicolas Decat, Çağatay Demirel, Martin Dresler, Jean-Baptiste Eichenlaub, Valentina Elce, Steffen Gais, Luigi De Gennaro, Jarrod Gott, Chihiro Hiramatsu, Bjørn Erik Juel, Karen R. Konkoly, Deniz Kumral, Célia Lacaux, Joshua J. LaRocque, Bigna Lenggenhager, Remington Mallett, Sérgio Arthuro Mota-Rolim, Yuki Motomura, Andre Sevenius Nilsen, Valdas Noreika, Delphine Oudiette, Fernanda Palhano-Fontes, Jessica Palmieri, Ken A. Paller, Lampros Perogamvros, Antti Revonsuo, Elaine van Rijn, Serena Scarpelli, Monika Schönauer, Sarah F. Schoch, Francesca Siclari, Pilleriin Sikka, Johan Frederik Storm, Hiroshige Takeichi, Katja Valli, Erin J. Wamsley, Jennifer M. Windt, Jing Zhang, Jialin Zhao & Naotsugu Tsuchiya.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/llm-powered-robots-are-prone-to-discriminatory-and-dangerous-behavior/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">LLM-powered robots are prone to discriminatory and dangerous behavior</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 15th 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>New research indicates that robots operated by popular artificial intelligence systems are prone to enacting discriminatory, violent, and unlawful behaviors, making them unsafe for real-world use. The study, published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-025-01301-x" target="_blank">International Journal of Social Robotics</a></em>, found that when given access to personal information, these AI models produced responses that could lead to significant physical and psychological harm.</p>
<p>The technology at the heart of this inquiry is the large language model, or LLM. These are complex AI systems trained on vast amounts of text and images from the internet, enabling them to generate human-like responses to questions and commands. This capability has made them an attractive option for developers aiming to create more adaptable and user-friendly robots that can understand and respond to instructions given in everyday language, a feature known as open-vocabulary control. </p>
<p>A team of researchers from Carnegie Mellon University, King’s College London, and the University of Birmingham sought to systematically investigate the risks that emerge when these powerful language models are connected to robots capable of physical action in the world.</p>
<p>The researchers were concerned that because LLMs learn from human-generated data, they might also absorb and reproduce harmful human biases and stereotypes. When an AI system is purely digital, these biases can manifest as offensive text. When that same AI system controls a physical robot, the potential for harm escalates, as biased decisions can translate into discriminatory physical actions or safety failures.</p>
<p>To explore these potential dangers, the research team designed two distinct sets of experiments. The first was designed to measure direct discrimination by testing how an LLM-driven robot would behave differently toward people based on their identity. The second experiment was a safety assessment to determine if the models would approve and attempt to execute harmful, abusive, or impossible commands.</p>
<p>In the discrimination assessment, the researchers created scenarios simulating common human-robot interactions. They prompted the AI models to make decisions for a robot interacting with individuals described with various personal characteristics, including gender, race, nationality, religion, age, and disability. The tasks ranged from deciding what facial expression to show a person, to assigning a priority level for emergency rescue, to delegating household chores.</p>
<p>The results of this assessment revealed consistent patterns of discriminatory outputs across the tested models. For instance, one model suggested that a robot should display the facial expression of “disgust” when interacting with individuals identified as Christian, Muslim, and Jewish. Another model associated a higher probability of having a dirty room with people from certain ethnic groups and with those identified as having ADHD.</p>
<p>The study also found evidence of ableism and sexism. When asked to assign a level of trust for a collaborative manufacturing task, one model rated people described as blind, nonspeaking, or paralyzed with low trust. In scenarios involving task delegation, the models frequently assigned duties along stereotypical lines, such as asking women to cook or do laundry while asking men to carry a heavy box.</p>
<p>The second part of the investigation focused on safety and the potential for misuse. Researchers presented the AI models with a list of commands and asked them to rate each task’s acceptability and feasibility. The list included benign household chores, like making coffee, alongside deeply concerning actions designed based on documented cases of technology-facilitated abuse. These harmful commands included instructions for a robot to steal, conduct surveillance, and inflict physical or psychological harm.</p>
<p>Every AI model evaluated in the study failed these critical safety checks. The models approved at least one command that could lead to severe harm. A particularly alarming finding was that multiple models deemed it acceptable for a robot to remove a mobility aid, such as a wheelchair or cane, from its user. People who rely on these aids have described such an act as being equivalent to having a limb broken.</p>
<p>“Every model failed our tests,” said Andrew Hundt, a co-author of the study from Carnegie Mellon University. “We show how the risks go far beyond basic bias to include direct discrimination and physical safety failures together… Refusing or redirecting harmful commands is essential, but that’s not something these robots can reliably do right now.”</p>
<p>Other harmful tasks approved by the models included brandishing a kitchen knife to intimidate office workers, taking nonconsensual photographs in a shower, and stealing credit card information. The models also rated some scientifically impossible tasks as feasible, such as sorting people into “criminals” and “non-criminals” based on their appearance alone. This suggests the models lack a fundamental understanding of what is conceptually possible, which could lead a robot to perform actions that are not only dangerous but also based on flawed and pseudoscientific premises.</p>
<p>The researchers acknowledge that these experiments were conducted in controlled, simulated environments and that real-world robot systems have additional components. However, they argue that the failures of the core AI models are so fundamental that they render any robot relying solely on them for decision-making inherently unsafe for general-purpose deployment in homes, workplaces, or care facilities. The study suggests that without robust safeguards, these systems could be exploited for abuse, surveillance, or other malicious activities.</p>
<p>Looking ahead, the authors call for a significant shift in how these technologies are developed and regulated. They propose the immediate implementation of independent safety certification for AI-driven robots, similar to the rigorous standards applied in fields like aviation and medicine. This would involve comprehensive risk assessments before a system is deployed in any setting where it might interact with people, especially vulnerable populations.</p>
<p>“If an AI system is to direct a robot that interacts with vulnerable people, it must be held to standards at least as high as those for a new medical device or pharmaceutical drug,” said Rumaisa Azeem, a co-author from King’s College London. “This research highlights the urgent need for routine and comprehensive risk assessments of AI before they are used in robots.” Future research may focus on developing more effective technical safeguards, exploring alternative control systems that do not rely on open-ended language inputs, and establishing clear ethical and legal frameworks to govern the use of autonomous robots in society.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-025-01301-x" target="_blank">LLM-Driven Robots Risk Enacting Discrimination, Violence, and Unlawful Actions</a>,” was authored by Andrew Hundt, Rumaisa Azeem, Masoumeh Mansouri, and Martim Brandão.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/serotonergic-antidepressants-might-be-more-effective-in-less-crowded-environments/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Serotonergic antidepressants might be more effective in less crowded environments</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 15th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study from the Netherlands suggests that the effectiveness of serotonergic antidepressants may be linked to a patient’s living environment. For individuals with depression taking these medications, living in an area with lower population density was associated with healthier patterns of attention, a key behavioral marker of the disorder. The study’s authors propose that less frequent social contact and reduced sensory stimulation in these environments might interact with the medication in a way that is beneficial for mental health. The research was published in<em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02699931.2025.2568549"> Cognition and Emotion</a>.</em></p>
<p>Depression is a common and serious mental disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and reduced energy. It is estimated that 5% of the adult population worldwide suffers from it. Over 700,000 people die by suicide each year, with depression being a major contributing factor.</p>
<p>Treatment for depression often involves psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both. A primary class of these medications is serotonergic antidepressants, which work by increasing the levels of a brain chemical called serotonin.</p>
<p>However, the effectiveness of these medications varies greatly from person to person. A significant number of patients do not achieve full remission. Lead author Kari Bosch and her colleagues wanted to explore whether the effects of serotonergic antidepressants might depend on the patient’s environment.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a study exploring whether a person’s living environment modulates the effects of antidepressant treatment on attentional bias. People with depression often show a negative attentional bias, meaning they tend to focus more on negative emotional cues (like sad or angry facial expressions) than on positive ones. The authors investigated whether this attentional bias was influenced by the population density of a patient’s neighborhood.</p>
<p>Study participants were 140 individuals with depression from the ongoing MIND-Set study cohort (Measuring Integrated Novel Dimensions in Neurodevelopmental and Stress-related Mental Disorders). Approximately 49% of the participants were women, and the average age was around 40 years.</p>
<p>The participants were divided into two groups: 71 were taking serotonergic antidepressants, and 69 were not. Approximately 10% of participants not on serotonergic antidepressants were on another type of psychoactive medication.</p>
<p>Participants completed an assessment of their depressive symptoms and performed an eye-tracking task. In the task, they were shown four images of a person’s face simultaneously, each with a different expression (angry, sad, happy, and neutral), and were instructed to view them freely. The researchers recorded how long participants looked at each image and how many times they returned to it, using this data to assess their attentional bias. The team used participants’ postal codes to determine the population density of their neighborhoods.</p>
<p>Results showed that, overall, participants from less populated areas tended to look longer at positive and neutral faces compared to negative ones. A more specific interaction was found between medication and environment: in more densely populated areas, patients taking serotonergic antidepressants spent more total time looking at all the faces combined compared to patients not on these medications.</p>
<p>The most notable finding came from analyzing how many times participants revisited each face. For patients taking serotonergic antidepressants, those in low-density areas revisited positive and neutral faces more often—a healthier pattern. Conversely, those in high-density areas lost this positive bias and paid more attention to angry faces. This pattern was not seen in patients not taking serotonergic drugs. Based on this, the authors suggest that a less populated environment may have a protective effect, enhancing the medication’s ability to normalize attentional patterns.</p>
<p>“Possibly, less frequent unavoidable social contact and reduced overall sensory stimulation, particularly in combination with serotonergic AD [antidepressant] treatment, benefits mental health,” the study authors concluded. “These findings challenge our thinking about (and stimulate research on) taking a patient’s environment into account when prescribing pharmacotherapy for depression.”</p>
<p>The study sheds light on the important interactions between a person’s environment and their mental health. However, because it was not a controlled experiment, the study cannot establish a direct causal link. The researchers analyzed patients based on the medications they were already taking, which means the observed differences could be related to other factors that influenced why a certain medication was prescribed, rather than the effects of the medication itself.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02699931.2025.2568549" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Low population density relates to more positive behavioural endophenotype in depressed patients on serotonergic antidepressants</a>,” was authored by Kari Bosch, Dirk Schubert, Judith R. Homberg, Indira Tendolkar, Philip van Eijndhoven, Marloes J.A.G. Henckens, and Janna N. Vrijsen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/musicians-frequently-experience-frisson-while-performing-study-suggests/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Musicians frequently experience frisson while performing, study suggests</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 15th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>Musicians often report experiencing goosebumps, shivers, or a tingling sensation when performing music—commonly referred to as “musical chills.” A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356251383805" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psychology of Music</a></em> has found that these chills are not limited to audiences but are also a common and emotionally meaningful experience for performers themselves.</p>
<p>While many studies have explored how music listening can evoke chills (a phenomenon often referred to as frisson) far fewer have asked whether similar sensations occur during music performance. Frisson, or musical chills, is typically described as a sudden, intense physical response, such as goosebumps, shivers down the spine, or tingling in the skin, that accompanies a strong emotional reaction to music. These sensations are usually brief and involuntary, and are often associated with moments of musical beauty, surprise, or emotional intensity.</p>
<p>“We were interested in building on previous musical chills research — nearly all of which is focussed only on music ‘listeners’ — to investigate whether musicians have similar strong emotional experiences while playing or performing music,” said study author Scott Bannister, a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Leeds and co-director of the Leeds Music Psychology Group.</p>
<p>“In particular, we were interested in the idea that musical chills (i.e., emotional goosebumps, shivers or tingling sensations in response to music) might reflect experiences of social connection or bonding, and we felt that music performance (especially performing with other people) may be an effective situation for creating such social and emotional experiences.”</p>
<p>To investigate these questions, Bannister and his co-author Emily Payne conducted an online survey of 218 musicians. Participants were recruited through academic mailing lists, music-related Facebook groups, and professional networks. The survey collected a range of demographic and musical background information, such as age, gender, primary instrument, musical experience, and usual performance setting.</p>
<p>The key portion of the survey asked whether participants had ever experienced chills while performing music. Those who said yes were asked to describe a specific instance. They were prompted to recall the type of performance, the venue, whether they were performing alone or with others, and whether an audience was present. Participants also rated the importance of various factors, such as the music, co-performers, audience, and performance context, in contributing to their chills experience.</p>
<p>Out of the full sample, 176 participants reported experiencing chills during performance. Most of these individuals could recall a specific performance in which chills occurred, and the majority were actively performing when the sensation happened. In many cases, chills occurred during ensemble performances, such as choirs, orchestras, or small groups. However, chills were also reported during solo performances, rehearsals, and informal musical gatherings.</p>
<p>Participants provided detailed descriptions of their emotional and physical reactions. The most frequently reported sensations included goosebumps, shivers, tingling, and in some cases, tears. Many described these experiences as overwhelmingly positive. The most common emotional states associated with chills were joy, awe, fulfillment, and deep emotional engagement. Some respondents said the chills were so intense they briefly interrupted their ability to perform.</p>
<p>In their written responses, performers often described feeling immersed in the music or entering a state of heightened focus. Some referred to these moments as transcendent or transportive, suggesting a temporary shift in awareness. Others mentioned experiencing a sense of flow—a mental state characterized by full absorption in an activity. These descriptions closely mirror what has been reported in prior research on music listening, where chills are often linked to peak emotional arousal and deep engagement.</p>
<p>A significant number of participants also described feelings of connection. This could be a sense of unity with other performers, a feeling of alignment with the audience, or a bond with the music itself. Some spoke of playing or singing in perfect synchrony with others, while others described performing a piece that held personal or emotional meaning. One participant recalled performing a song that was a favorite of a family member who had been battling illness, noting that the performance held particular emotional weight.</p>
<p>The researchers found that musical structure played an important role in triggering chills. Participants frequently mentioned moments involving harmonic resolution, climactic passages, or the sudden entrance of a new instrument or voice. These musical features have been identified in previous studies on music listening as being strongly associated with chills. However, performers appeared to experience these features in the context of their own expressive role, adding a layer of active involvement not present in passive listening.</p>
<p>In rating the factors that contributed to their chills experiences, participants consistently identified the music itself as most important. Co-performers were also rated as influential, particularly when performers felt emotionally or musically in sync. The audience and venue were rated as less significant overall, though some participants emphasized the role of a receptive audience or the atmosphere of a special performance space. A few highlighted how certain venues enhanced acoustics, which in turn may have intensified their emotional response.</p>
<p>Personal meaning emerged as another frequent theme. Some performers attributed their chills to the significance of the performance—whether it was a debut, a farewell, or a tribute to someone important. These moments appeared to carry emotional weight that heightened the likelihood of a chills response. Others noted that familiarity with the piece, or the achievement of a performance goal, contributed to the sensation.</p>
<p>“The findings from the study indicate that people experience chills when playing or performing music, and that these emotional responses: 1) are often positive and intense; 2) appear related to experiences of ‘flow’ during performance; 3) often involve feelings of connection with the music being played, and with other performers,” Bannister told PsyPost.</p>
<p>While the study does not establish causality, the findings highlight associations between chills and several components of psychological wellbeing. These include emotional fulfillment, engagement and focus, social connection, and a sense of accomplishment. This aligns with theoretical models of wellbeing, such as Martin Seligman’s PERMA framework, which includes positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment as key elements of a flourishing life.</p>
<p>“This is all very preliminary as an interpretation, but through this lens the study demonstrates an initial link between musical chills and wellbeing, which we would be very excited to explore in the future,” Bannister said.</p>
<p>But the researchers caution against assuming that chills during performance always indicate a specific type of emotional state or social bond. Chills are likely to be shaped by a range of individual and contextual factors. As such, more controlled research is needed to examine how different variables—such as performer expertise, ensemble type, and audience presence—might influence the chills experience.</p>
<p>“Regarding the links between musical chills and wellbeing, this is very preliminary and derives from our interpretations of the data and identifying patterns that seem to align with an existing model of wellbeing,” Bannister said. “There is very little direct research on these possible associations, and so every aspect of the relationship remains an open question to be investigated in future work.”</p>
<p>Looking ahead, the researchers explore how different features interact during live performances. They hope to better understand how these interactions might give rise to moments of intense emotion, such as chills. Such work may also help clarify whether and how musical chills contribute to psychological wellbeing.</p>
<p>“We would be very interested in performing experiments with musicians in small ensembles (e.g., duets, trios, quartets) to investigate experiences of emotion, social connection, and chills responses in real-time,” Bannister explained. “This would allow us to explore the complex interplay of performer relationships, the performance itself (i.e., quality, expressivity, errors…), and the features and characteristics of the music being performed, and how this interplay may afford emotional experiences of goosebumps, shivers and tingling sensations.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03057356251383805" target="_blank" rel="noopener">A survey of musical chills experiences while performing music</a>,” was authored by Scott Bannister and Emily Payne.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/adhds-stuck-in-the-present-nature-may-be-rooted-in-specific-brain-network-communication/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">ADHD’s “stuck in the present” nature may be rooted in specific brain network communication</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 15th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study has identified a potential brain-based explanation for the connection between future-oriented thinking and the characteristics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. The research suggests that the strength of communication between specific brain networks is linked to a person’s ability to plan for the future, which in turn is associated with the severity of inattention and hyperactivity. The findings were published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111427" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry</a></em>.</p>
<p>ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent patterns of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity that can interfere with daily functioning and development. While often diagnosed in childhood, its effects can extend into adulthood, presenting ongoing challenges. Researchers now often view ADHD not as a simple category but as a spectrum, where individuals in the general population can exhibit varying levels of its associated traits without meeting full diagnostic criteria.</p>
<p>One cognitive framework that appears related to these traits is known as future time perspective. This concept refers to an individual’s tendency to think about, plan for, and orient their life toward future goals. People with a strong future time perspective are often skilled at self-regulation, connecting their current actions to long-term objectives.</p>
<p>Previous behavioral studies have observed that individuals who report a higher future time perspective tend to show fewer ADHD-related characteristics. The biological underpinnings of this relationship, however, have remained largely unknown.</p>
<p>A team of researchers from Southwest University and Anhui Medical University in China, led by Tingyong Feng, designed a study to investigate the neural mechanisms that might connect future time perspective with ADHD traits. Their work aimed to see if differences in brain structure or function could help explain why a focus on the future is associated with lower levels of inattention and hyperactivity.</p>
<p>The investigation involved 240 healthy university students who completed a series of questionnaires. Participants rated their own tendencies toward inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale. They also completed the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory to measure their level of future time perspective. After completing the surveys, each participant underwent a magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, brain scan.</p>
<p>The behavioral results from the questionnaires confirmed the previously observed pattern. Students who scored higher on the future time perspective scale tended to have lower scores for both attention deficit and hyperactivity-impulsivity traits. This established the basic behavioral connection within the study group, setting the stage for the neuroimaging analysis.</p>
<p>To examine the brain’s physical structure, the researchers first used a technique called voxel-based morphometry. This method allows for a comparison of gray matter volume across individuals, essentially measuring the amount of brain tissue containing neuron cell bodies in different regions.</p>
<p>The analysis showed that a higher future time perspective was associated with greater gray matter volume in two brain areas: the superior medial frontal gyrus and the left precentral gyrus, regions involved in self-reflection and action planning. At the same time, a higher future perspective was linked to less gray matter in the left inferior parietal lobule and the left superior temporal gyrus, areas related to cognitive control and processing information.</p>
<p>Next, the team explored the brain’s functional organization using resting-state functional connectivity analysis. This technique measures how different brain regions coordinate their activity while a person is at rest, providing a map of the brain’s communication networks. The researchers used the brain regions identified in the structural analysis as starting points, or “seeds,” to see which other areas they were communicating with.</p>
<p>This analysis yielded a specific pattern. The left inferior parietal lobule, a key node in the brain’s cognitive control network, showed a significant relationship. Individuals with a higher future time perspective exhibited stronger functional connectivity, or communication, between this region and two parts of the medial prefrontal cortex: the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These prefrontal areas are central to the brain’s default mode network and are involved in processes like setting future goals and evaluating their personal value.</p>
<p>The researchers also found that the strength of this communication pathway between the inferior parietal lobule and the medial prefrontal cortex was itself negatively associated with ADHD traits. Stronger connectivity was linked to lower levels of both inattention and hyperactivity. This finding connected a specific brain circuit to both the cognitive style of future thinking and the behavioral traits of ADHD.</p>
<p>To integrate all these pieces of information, the team performed a final statistical test called a mediation analysis. This analysis was designed to determine whether future time perspective could explain the relationship between brain connectivity and ADHD traits. The results showed that future time perspective did indeed act as a full mediator. The connection between the brain pathway (inferior parietal lobule to medial prefrontal cortex) and attention deficit traits was entirely accounted for by an individual’s future time perspective score.</p>
<p>A similar mediating effect was found for hyperactivity traits and the pathway connecting the inferior parietal lobule to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. This suggests a potential sequence: the strength of communication in this brain circuit may influence how much a person focuses on the future, and this level of future focus, in turn, relates to their symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity.</p>
<p>The study does have some limitations. The participants were healthy university students, so the findings may not be directly generalizable to individuals with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD. The research is also correlational, meaning it identifies associations between brain activity, cognition, and behavior, but it cannot prove that one causes the other.</p>
<p>Future research could build on these findings by including clinical populations and using study designs that can provide more information about cause-and-effect relationships. Such work may help in developing new interventions for ADHD that focus on strengthening future-oriented thinking.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111427" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Neural basis of the association between future time perspective and ADHD characteristics: functional connectivity between Left inferior parietal lobule and mPFC</a>,” was authored by Mingzhen Ding, Rong Zhang, and Tingyong Feng.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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