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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/women-with-larger-breasts-tend-to-report-higher-self-esteem-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Women with larger breasts tend to report higher self-esteem, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 18th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://turkishfamilyphysician.com/articles/research-article/the-psychological-correlates-of-breast-volume-in-women-body-perception/" target="_blank">The Journal of Turkish Family Physician</a></em> provides evidence that breast size and marital status may be related to a woman’s self-esteem. However, the findings did not suggest a strong connection between breast size and how women felt about their bodies more generally. These results suggest that specific physical and social characteristics may play a role in shaping psychological well-being.</p>
<p>The research was grounded in the understanding that the breast holds both physical and symbolic significance for many women. Beyond its biological role, the breast is often associated with femininity, sexuality, attractiveness, and motherhood. Changes in breast size and shape can occur naturally due to factors like aging, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menopause. Illnesses involving the breast, such as cancer, are known to affect not only physical health but also emotional well-being and self-identity.</p>
<p>While some earlier studies have looked into women’s satisfaction with their breast size, few have used objective measurements to explore how breast volume might relate to psychological factors like self-esteem or body image. The researchers behind this study aimed to fill that gap by using a physical measurement tool to calculate breast volume and by examining how this related to women’s self-perceptions.</p>
<p>“Our motivation for conducting this study stems from the fact that the breast, as a female-specific organ, symbolizes both motherhood and sexuality, giving it significant importance. While literature reviews reveal numerous studies on body image and self-esteem in women (mostly among breast cancer patients), research examining the relationship between breast volume and these psychological characteristics in healthy women is very limited,” said study author Yasemin Alagöz of Sivas Numune Hospital.</p>
<p>“Moreover, although breast size is often emphasized in cultural ideals of beauty, its psychological effects have been scientifically underexplored—another key motivation for our work. Our aim was to fill this gap by objectively investigating the relationship between breast volume, self-esteem, and body perception in women.”</p>
<p>The researchers carried out a cross-sectional study involving 343 women aged 18 and above. These participants were patients or accompanying relatives who visited a breast outpatient clinic or a cancer screening center in Türkiye. All participants were free of major illnesses or psychiatric diagnoses and had not undergone breast-related surgery.</p>
<p>Each woman’s height, weight, and body mass index were measured. Breast volume was assessed using the Grossman-Roudner Disk, a device that estimates breast size based on physical dimensions. Women were then asked to complete two psychological assessments through face-to-face interviews: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, which measures self-worth, and the Body Cathexis Scale, which evaluates satisfaction with various body parts including the breasts. Sociodemographic information was also collected.</p>
<p>The average age of participants was just over 41 years. Most of the women were married and had given birth. The average breast volume was about 368 cubic centimeters. Based on established thresholds, the researchers divided participants into three groups: those with small breasts (under 275 cm³), normal-sized breasts (275–375 cm³), and large breasts (over 375 cm³, referred to as macromastia).</p>
<p>Women in the large breast volume group scored higher on the self-esteem scale compared to those with average-sized breasts. The difference between the average and large groups was statistically significant, while differences between small and other groups were not. </p>
<p>“Although our study does not directly explain this result, culturally, larger breasts may be associated with greater femininity,” Alagöz told PsyPost. “This could relate to perceptions of being more attractive or more effective in breastfeeding. Ultimately, women’s self-perceptions are shaped not only by individual thoughts but also by social and cultural expectations.”</p>
<p>“The impact of breast size on self-esteem is not large but is statistically significant. In other words, while breast size is an important factor, self-esteem and body perception are shaped by the interaction of many different factors.”</p>
<p>The study also found that marital status was associated with self-esteem. Married women had significantly higher self-esteem scores than single women. This pattern was not observed when looking at body image satisfaction. In other words, being married was related to higher self-worth, but not necessarily to more positive feelings about the body.</p>
<p>When it came to body image more broadly, the researchers did not find a meaningful connection between breast size and scores on the Body Cathexis Scale. Across the full sample, 70 percent of women said they liked or strongly liked their breasts. This relatively high rate of satisfaction may reflect cultural or demographic characteristics specific to the study group.</p>
<p>“It was notable that participants’ satisfaction with their breasts was higher than what has been reported in many studies in the literature,” Alagöz said.</p>
<p>Other factors were also explored. Breast volume tended to increase with age, higher body mass index, longer breastfeeding duration, and earlier age at first childbirth. These relationships are consistent with previous research showing that breast size is shaped by both biological and lifestyle factors. However, the study did not find significant connections between breast size and menstrual history or menopausal status.</p>
<p>While the findings offer insight into how physical and social characteristics might relate to psychological well-being, the study does have limitations. The participants were predominantly married women who had children, which could affect the generalizability of the results. Breast size and body image may be perceived differently among women who are younger, single, or have not had children.</p>
<p>“This study does not claim that breast size determines self-worth,” Alagöz noted. “Psychological well-being is shaped by the interaction of many factors. Our aim was not to reinforce stereotypes but to address a topic that has been underexplored. Additionally, participants in our study spanned a wide age range, including unmarried and nulliparous women, which highlights that factors such as childbirth and breastfeeding may also influence breast size.”</p>
<p>The researchers suggest that future studies could focus on more homogeneous groups, such as women who have never given birth or those in specific age brackets. It may also be useful to explore cultural differences in how breast size and body image are perceived, given that ideals of femininity and beauty can vary widely across societies.</p>
<p>“Future studies could focus on more homogeneous groups, such as no partner or nulliparous women. This would allow a clearer examination of the psychological effects of breast volume,” Alagöz said. “We hope this research contributes to a better understanding of women’s mental health. Our goal is to support individuals in accepting their bodies without harmful comparisons.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://turkishfamilyphysician.com/articles/research-article/the-psychological-correlates-of-breast-volume-in-women-body-perception/" target="_blank">The psychological correlates of breast volume in women: Implications for self-esteem and body perception</a>,” was authored by Yasemin Alagöz, Mehmet Ali Eryılmaz, Fatma Gökşin Cihan, and Ruhuşen Kutlu.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/adolescents-exposed-to-porn-show-higher-rates-of-risky-behavior-and-traditional-gender-views/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Adolescents exposed to porn show higher rates of risky behavior and traditional gender views</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 18th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study of 600 teenagers in Spain, indicates that adolescents who consume pornography are more likely to hold traditional sexist views and engage in a variety of risky behaviors. The research, published in the <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-025-03217-z" target="_blank">Archives of Sexual Behavior</a></em>, points to the importance of earlier and more comprehensive sexual education, including media literacy around pornography. The findings suggest that a combination of age-appropriate education and open communication could help young people navigate their sexuality more safely and with healthier attitudes toward gender.</p>
<p>The research team aimed to investigate how watching pornography during adolescence relates to attitudes about gender roles and participation in risky sexual behaviors. They were especially interested in examining how these relationships might vary by gender. Prior research has shown links between media exposure and young people’s sexual development, but few studies have analyzed pornography consumption, sexist beliefs, and risky behavior all together in the same group of adolescents. </p>
<p>The authors note that adolescence is a key period when individuals develop their views on relationships, sex, and identity. Exposure to certain media, including sexually explicit material, can play a significant role in shaping those views.</p>
<p>Earlier studies have shown that pornography often depicts unequal gender dynamics, usually portraying women as submissive and men as dominant. These portrayals may reinforce traditional gender roles and unrealistic sexual expectations. In addition, the age at which young people are first exposed to pornography has dropped significantly, with some reporting exposure as early as 13 years old. These trends raise concerns about how unfiltered and often violent content might influence attitudes and behavior, especially when formal sex education is lacking.</p>
<p>“We wanted to test whether patterns other researchers had found also appeared in our context, Galicia, so we looked at links between teenagers’ pornography use, sexist attitudes, and different risky behaviours. Instead of testing just one association, we measured several behaviours and attitudes together in the same sample and ran separate analyses for females and males to see which factors best predict porn use for each group,” said study author Sandra Sanmartín Feijóo, an assistant lecturer at the University of Burgos.</p>
<p>The study involved 664 students between the ages of 12 and 17 from four secondary schools in the province of Ourense, in northwest Spain. Participants completed a detailed questionnaire about their demographics, pornography use, online and offline sexual behaviors, and attitudes toward gender roles. The research team used a Spanish version of the Social Roles Questionnaire to measure sexist attitudes, which includes two subscales: one for traditional gender beliefs and another for more egalitarian or gender-transcendent attitudes.</p>
<p>To measure behavior, the survey included questions about both online activities (such as sexting or contacting strangers) and offline experiences (such as condom use and sexual regret). These questions were designed to capture a wide range of behaviors, from passive experiences like receiving explicit messages to more active engagement, such as meeting people in person who were first contacted online.</p>
<p>Data were collected during the first half of 2021, with the help of trained prevention workers due to pandemic-related restrictions. Participants and their families provided consent, and all responses were anonymous.</p>
<p>Nearly half of the adolescents in the study had watched pornography at least once in their lives, and just over one in five had done so in the past month. Porn use was more common among boys and older teens. Among 12- to 13-year-olds, about 28 percent had already viewed pornography, a finding the researchers highlight as concerning given their age and the lack of structured sex education in schools.</p>
<p>“The fact that nearly half the sample had ever used pornography underlines how widespread exposure is, even among younger adolescents,” Feijóo told PsyPost. “There were big differences by age and gender: for example, 64.9% of males aged 16–17 reported viewing pornography in the last month, compared with 6.5% of females the same age.” </p>
<p>Those who had watched pornography scored higher on the traditional sexism scale. This subscale includes beliefs such as the idea that certain jobs are more suitable for men than women. However, there was no significant difference between pornography users and non-users in the more egalitarian subscale, which measures support for breaking down gender roles entirely.</p>
<p>The researchers also found that adolescents who consumed pornography were more likely to be involved in both online and offline sexual risk behaviors. These included sexting, having unprotected sex, regretting a sexual experience, and participating in group sex. In some cases, the likelihood of certain behaviors was two to six times higher among pornography users. Receiving explicit messages or photos and contacting strangers online were especially common among this group.</p>
<p>To explore these links further, the researchers ran statistical models separately for males and females to see which behaviors best predicted pornography use. For both groups, receiving sexual messages and accepting friend requests from unknown people online were strong predictors. Among males, two additional behaviors were significant: receiving explicit images or videos and not using condoms during sex. These findings suggest that pornography use may be part of a broader pattern of online and offline risk engagement, particularly for boys.</p>
<p>“To give a few concrete numbers: females who had received sexual text messages were about 2.4 times as likely to report pornography use; while males who received sexual pictures/videos were about 3 times as likely, and those who received sexual text messages were about 1.6 times as likely,” Feijóo explained. “Additionally, males who reported not using a condom were about 2.3 times as likely to report porn use.”</p>
<p>The researchers emphasize that their findings support the need for early, comprehensive sexual education that includes media and pornography literacy. Given that legal restrictions on access to pornography have not prevented underage viewing, educational approaches may be more effective in helping adolescents critically evaluate what they see. This could involve teaching about consent, gender equality, and healthy relationships alongside discussions of how pornography depicts sex and gender roles.</p>
<p>“Our findings reinforce what earlier studies have reported: porn use is common in adolescence, especially among older male teens, and tends to be linked with stronger traditional sexist beliefs and taking part in risky sexual behaviors,” Feijóo said. “Our study doesn’t prove porn causes those attitudes, it shows they’re associated. That this relationship is a pattern across research shows it’s something worth addressing through education and prevention. Teaching ‘porn literacy’ (how to understand and critique porn) and including age-appropriate sex education are practical ways to help young people think critically about what they see when they come across pornography.”</p>
<p>At the same time, the authors caution that their study cannot determine cause and effect. Since the data were collected at one point in time, it is not possible to know whether watching pornography leads to sexist attitudes and risky behavior, or whether those with such attitudes and behaviors are more likely to seek out pornography. Future research should follow adolescents over time to better understand how these patterns develop and whether educational interventions can shift them.</p>
<p>“We found statistically significant associations, but ‘significant’ doesn’t automatically mean large or deterministic,” Feijóo noted. “Statistically significant associations mean the relationship is unlikely to be just chance, but they don’t mean every teen who watches porn will have sexist attitudes or take sexual risks. Even when several studies agree on these results, there may be other factors (e.g., family environment, peer groups, personality traits) influencing both porn use and the behaviours and attitudes we measured.”</p>
<p>“I would like to follow a group of teens over time to test which comes first, porn exposure or the attitudes and behaviours, and to evaluate whether educational interventions combining porn literacy and broader risk-prevention actually reduce harmful attitudes or unsafe behaviors.”</p>
<p>“We should treat pornography use as a common part of adolescent life, whether it’s curiosity or accidental exposure, and respond with open conversation, age-appropriate education, media and porn literacy, and proportionate parental monitoring,” Feijóo added. “Schools, families, and health services should offer safe places for discussion and learning rather than relying only on punishment or shaming.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-025-03217-z" target="_blank">Online Pornography Consumption, Risky Behaviors, and Sexist Attitudes in Adolescence: A Cross-Sectional Survey Study</a>,” was authored by Sandra Feijóo, Vanessa Portela, and Antonio Rial.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/neuroscientists-discover-a-repeating-rhythm-that-guides-brain-network-activity/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Neuroscientists discover a repeating rhythm that guides brain network activity</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 18th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-02052-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a></em> suggests that the human brain may organize its many cognitive functions by activating specific networks in a repeating, clock-like cycle. This rhythmic pattern of activity could provide a way for the brain to make sure that attention, memory, sensory processing, and other mental operations occur efficiently and without conflict. The findings may offer a new way to understand how the brain structures its activity over time, with potential implications for cognition, aging, and brain disorders.</p>
<p>The human brain is constantly juggling many demands. At any moment, it might need to focus attention, recall a memory, process incoming sights and sounds, or plan a movement. Despite the complexity of these functions, the brain typically handles them with speed and flexibility. Yet researchers have not fully understood how the brain ensures that all of these mental processes take place in a timely and coordinated way.</p>
<p>One possibility is that the brain follows a repeating pattern, cycling through the different mental functions in an organized sequence. If so, this internal rhythm could help structure the mind’s activity even in the absence of external cues. Previous studies have shown that brain networks tend to activate in certain patterns and that transitions between networks are not random. However, it has remained unclear whether these patterns are arranged into a broader, consistent cycle that includes all the major brain networks involved in cognition.</p>
<p>“This research was inspired by observations that transitions between functional brain networks are asymmetric: we have seen that in many cases it is much more likely that network X follows network Y than the other way around. This indicated that there may be a preferential order in which networks activate. Our objectives were to establish and quantify this organization in time,” said study author Mats W.J. van Es, a senior researcher at <a href="https://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/team/mats-van-es" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the University of Oxford</a> and Extraordinary Junior Research Fellow at <a href="https://www.queens.ox.ac.uk/people/dr-mats-w-j-van-es/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Queen’s College</a>.</p>
<p>To investigate this idea, the researchers analyzed data from five large studies that used magnetoencephalography, a technique that records the brain’s magnetic fields with high temporal precision. Participants in these studies were mostly healthy adults who were at rest, either with their eyes open or closed. The research team focused on identifying patterns in how large-scale brain networks became active and transitioned over time.</p>
<p>They applied a method called hidden Markov modeling, which identifies repeating states of brain activity based on their timing and spatial features. Each state corresponded to a functional brain network—a group of brain regions that tend to become active together. These networks have been linked to specific mental functions, such as the default mode network (linked to internal thought), the dorsal attention network (associated with attention to the outside world), and sensorimotor networks.</p>
<p>The researchers then developed a new analytical tool called temporal interval network density analysis. This method examined how likely one brain network was to become active before or after another network. By comparing these patterns across many intervals and participants, the researchers looked for an overall ordering in the transitions.</p>
<p>They found that while individual transitions were somewhat unpredictable, the average pattern revealed a consistent cycle. This cycle appeared to guide the brain through a sequence of network activations, with each network tending to occupy a specific position in the cycle. The cycle repeated approximately every 300 to 1,000 milliseconds and was observed across all five datasets, suggesting it is a robust feature of brain activity.</p>
<p>The results provide evidence that the brain’s large-scale networks do not activate randomly or independently. Instead, they follow a repeating sequence that spans a full set of cognitive functions. Each network was found to have a preferred phase within the cycle, meaning it was more likely to activate at a particular point in the overall sequence.</p>
<p>The cycle grouped networks with similar functions together. For example, networks related to internal thought and memory were located in one part of the cycle, while networks associated with external attention and sensory processing were on the opposite side. This suggests the cycle may help the brain manage different types of processing by organizing them in time.</p>
<p>“We’ve shown first evidence that functional brain networks follow organised temporal rules, which is a level of brain organisation that we didn’t know about before,” van Es told PsyPost. “Brain networks have been studied extensively but mostly in terms of their spatial layout (the brain areas that make up each network), and their engagement for certain behaviors, not their inherent organization in time. We think that this clock-like timing of brain networks might enable the brain to coordinate diverse cognitive functions, and make sure every task is completed within a reasonable time frame.”</p>
<p>The study also found that the strength and speed of the cycle varied across individuals. Some people showed stronger and faster cycles than others. These individual differences were linked to age, cognitive performance, and even genetic factors. Older adults tended to have slower but more pronounced cycles. In a sample of twins, the rate of cycling was found to be heritable, meaning it may have a genetic basis.</p>
<p>The researchers also explored whether these cycles played a role in behavior. In one dataset, participants engaged in a memory task. The results indicated that certain phases of the cycle were more likely to coincide with moments of spontaneous memory replay. In another dataset involving a visual task, the phase of the cycle just before a response predicted how quickly the participant would react. This suggests that the cycle is not just a passive background rhythm but may have real-time consequences for how the brain functions.</p>
<p>“We were surprised by how robust the cycles are,” van Es said. “The presence of the cycle and the order in which networks preferably activate was the same across datasets, and even in a task where people were bombarded with visual input. We had thought that the visual task would completely disrupt the cycle, but it did not! It was still present in the background and affected behaviour. We are now curious to find out how stable these cycles are in the same individuals doing different tasks.”</p>
<p>The findings suggest a new level of temporal organization in brain activity. While much research has focused on where in the brain certain functions happen, this study highlights when they occur in relation to one another. The idea that the brain moves through a regular cycle of network activity could help explain how it manages to carry out many functions smoothly and in parallel.</p>
<p>This cyclical pattern may offer a mechanism for balancing different mental demands. For instance, if attention and memory compete for resources, organizing them into different phases of a cycle could help prevent interference. The rhythm might also act as an internal scaffold, structuring thought even in the absence of external structure.</p>
<p>The study’s results also raise the possibility that disruptions in this cycle could be linked to cognitive problems. Slower or less coordinated cycles might contribute to the difficulties with memory or attention seen in aging or certain psychiatric conditions. Because the cycle rate appears to be influenced by genetics, it may also serve as a biomarker for individual differences in brain function. But more research is needed to examine this.</p>
<p>“In this study, we primarily set out to establish this new type of brain organization, and it remains to be seen how strongly it affects our behavior,” van Es noted. “Our initial findings do suggest that there may be links to cognitive flexibility and performance, and we are currently investigating the role of these cycles in brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s, but the size of the effects is still unknown. In the very least, we have uncovered a limit to how the brain operates.”</p>
<p>Another limitation is that the method used to identify the cycle assumes that only one brain network is active at any given moment. While this simplification helps with analysis, real brain activity is likely more overlapping and nuanced. Future studies could use more advanced models that allow for multiple networks to be active at once.</p>
<p>“The order in which functional brain networks activate is robust, but it does somewhat vary from time to time,” van Es explained. “Additionally, we here used a model that assumes only one network is active at each moment, which is a useful simplification. In reality, there is likely a complicated mix of activity in these networks. Thus, while the order of the cycle is robust, it does somewhat differ between individual cycle. This combination of order and flexibility represents a trade-off between the need for the brain to perform all its essential functions in a timely manner, while maintaining its flexibility and adaptability.”</p>
<p>The researchers hope to explore whether these cycles can be influenced by training, disease, or interventions. They also aim to understand whether the cycle shapes the sequence in which mental operations are carried out. For example, does the brain have a preferred order for switching from memory to perception to action? If so, this might place limits on how thoughts and behaviors unfold in time.</p>
<p>Over the long term, this research may lead to new ways to track or even improve cognitive function by measuring or adjusting the brain’s internal timing. Much like the sleep cycle organizes different stages of rest, this newly identified brain cycle may provide a foundational rhythm for the mind at work.</p>
<p>“I want to better understand the mechanisms behind the cyclical pattern and understand where this preferred activation pattern comes from,” van Es said. “At the same time, I want to investigate how these cycles may shape or even constrain behaviour: Does the preferred order of brain networks activations constrain the order of cognitive operations we can complete (like memory, perception, movement)? As in sleep, disruption of the cycles could also be an important marker of brain disorders, and cycle-related measures could inform future clinical applications.”</p>
<p>“One of the lead authors on this study (Dr. Cameron Higgins) has founded an Australian-based company (<a href="https://www.resonait.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Resonait</a>) that seeks to improve an existing neurostimulation treatments for depression by coordinating the stimulation timing with these cyclical patterns.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-02052-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Large-scale cortical functional networks are organized in structured cycles</a>,” was authored by Mats W. J. van Es, Cameron Higgins, Chetan Gohil, Andrew J. Quinn, Diego Vidaurre, and Mark W. Woolrich.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-study-reveals-how-the-brain-learns-to-adapt-to-harmless-threats/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New study reveals how the brain learns to adapt to harmless threats</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 17th 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study on mice reveals how a specific brain circuit helps them learn when a perceived threat is not a real danger, adjusting their defensive reactions over time. The research identifies the interpeduncular nucleus, a midbrain structure, as a key regulator of this adaptive learning process, showing how its activity changes as an animal learns that a potential threat is harmless. The findings, published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03131-9" target="_blank">Molecular Psychiatry</a></em>, offer insight into the neural mechanisms that allow for flexible and appropriate responses to threats.</p>
<p>The ability to react defensively to potential danger is essential for survival. Equally important is the ability to learn when a recurring stimulus is not actually dangerous and to suppress that defensive response. In many anxiety and stress-related conditions, this learning process is impaired, leading to persistent and inappropriate fear reactions. </p>
<p>To better understand the brain mechanisms behind this adaptive process, a team of researchers led by Elora W. Williams at the University of Colorado Boulder set out to investigate how the brain learns to tone down innate, or unlearned, defensive behaviors. They focused on a natural threat stimulus to see how the brain adapts after repeated exposures that have no negative consequences.</p>
<p>The scientists began by observing the behavior of mice in a specially designed arena. The arena contained an open area and a small, sheltered space for hiding. An overhead screen was used to project a visual looming stimulus, which is a dark, expanding circle that mimics an approaching predator from above. This type of stimulus naturally triggers defensive behaviors in many species, including mice, without any prior training. On the first day of the experiment, when the mice saw the looming circle, they predictably showed a strong defensive response. They would immediately freeze in place, then quickly run to the shelter and remain there for a significant period.</p>
<p>The researchers repeated this procedure over three consecutive days. They observed that the mice’s behavior changed substantially with experience. By the third day, the animals showed a significant reduction in their defensive actions. They froze for a much shorter time upon seeing the stimulus and spent less time hiding inside the shelter. </p>
<p>Instead of hiding, they began to engage in more exploratory behaviors around the arena. This change in behavior indicated that the mice had learned that the looming shadow, despite its threatening appearance, was not a genuine danger. The learning process occurred between sessions, not within a single day’s trials, suggesting it involved memory consolidation.</p>
<p>With this behavioral pattern established, the team turned its attention to the brain. They focused on a region called the interpeduncular nucleus, which has been linked to fear and anxiety. Using a technique called fiber photometry, they recorded the real-time activity of specific neurons in this brain region while the mice were exposed to the looming stimulus. They measured the activity of GABAergic neurons, which are the main type of inhibitory nerve cells. </p>
<p>The recordings revealed that the activity of these neurons spiked dramatically when the mice first saw the stimulus on day one. However, just like the defensive behaviors, the activity of these neurons decreased over the three-day period. The reduced neural response mirrored the reduction in freezing and hiding behaviors.</p>
<p>To confirm that the activity in the interpeduncular nucleus was directly responsible for the defensive behaviors, the researchers used a technique called optogenetics. This method allows scientists to use light to control the activity of specific, genetically targeted neurons. In one experiment, they used yellow light to temporarily silence the GABAergic neurons in the interpeduncular nucleus at the exact moment the looming stimulus appeared on the first day. When these neurons were inhibited, the mice displayed significantly weaker defensive responses. They froze less and spent less time in the shelter, confirming that the activity of these neurons is necessary for generating the initial defensive reaction.</p>
<p>The team then investigated a specific pathway originating from the interpeduncular nucleus. Brain regions do not work in isolation; they form complex circuits. The researchers traced connections from the interpeduncular nucleus to another area called the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. They recorded the activity of only the neurons that formed this specific connection and found that this circuit was also highly active during the initial threat exposure and became less active as the mice learned.</p>
<p>Next, they used optogenetics to silence only this specific pathway. The results were different from when they silenced the entire interpeduncular nucleus. Inhibiting the connection to the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus did not reduce the mice’s initial freezing response on the first day. Instead, it impaired their ability to learn over time. Mice with this circuit silenced continued to spend a large amount of time hiding in the shelter even on the third day, unlike control animals that learned to explore more. This finding suggests that this specific circuit is not for generating the initial fear response itself, but is specifically involved in the adaptive learning that reduces fear with experience.</p>
<p>Finally, the study examined a distinct sub-population of neurons within the interpeduncular nucleus that produce a chemical messenger called somatostatin. These neurons were also activated by the threatening stimulus. When the researchers genetically removed these specific neurons, they observed another unique change in behavior. </p>
<p>The mice without somatostatin neurons in their interpeduncular nucleus showed normal freezing and escape responses, but they spent much less time hiding in the shelter after reaching it. This suggests that these particular neurons play a specialized role in the avoidance component of the defensive sequence, specifically the act of staying hidden from a perceived threat.</p>
<p>“The brain’s threat system is like an alarm. It needs to sound when danger is real, but it needs to shut off when it’s not,” said Williams, a graduate student in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience. “Our study shows how the brain learns to fine-tune those responses through experience, helping us adapt to the world.”</p>
<p>The study has some limitations. The experiments were conducted primarily on male mice, and it is possible that threat responses and learning may differ between sexes. Additionally, the animals were housed individually, which could influence their behavioral responses. Future research could explore these potential differences and examine how this brain circuit responds to other types of innate threats, such as the smell of a predator. The findings provide a detailed map of a brain circuit that governs how animals adjust their innate survival instincts based on experience.</p>
<p>“Collectively, these findings implicate the interpeduncular nucleus as a critical circuit for helping us process potential threats and adapt accordingly when we learn they aren’t putting us in danger,” said senior author Susanna Molas, assistant professor in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience.</p>
<p>“Identifying the neuronal circuits underlying threat processing and adaptive learning is vital to understanding the neuropathology of anxiety and other stress-related conditions,” said Williams.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03131-9" target="_blank">Interpeduncular GABAergic neuron function controls threat processing and innate defensive adaptive learning</a>,” was authored by Elora W. Williams, Leshia Snively, Benjamin R. O’Meara, Hannah L. Jacobs, Miranda Kolb, Rubing Zhao-Shea, Rebecca G. Pavchinskiy, Emma Keppler, Michael V. Baratta, Andrew R. Tapper, and Susanna Molas.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/do-pets-really-make-us-happier-the-science-is-complicated/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Do pets really make us happier? The science is complicated</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 17th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><div class="theconversation-article-body">
<p>People often turn to pets to boost their mood and find companionship. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200276">Improving well-being and reducing loneliness</a> are among the most cited reasons for adopting an animal companion.</p>
<p>But even though the belief that pets bring many benefits to their owners is widespread, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411415220">research shows</a> that having a pet is not a panacea for bolstering human psychological well-being.</p>
<p>Despite this, pets are often portrayed <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/11123312/pet-happiness-new-study/">in the news</a> and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/story.php/?story_fbid=835458885296131&id=100064960801092&_rdr">on social media</a> as effective solutions to reduce stress and loneliness, reflecting a popular belief in their health benefits. This can lead people to adopt pets without fully considering the responsibilities and demands involved, which can have negative consequences for both themselves and their pets.</p>
<p>As social psychologists studying human-pet relationships, we take a more nuanced approach, examining when, how and for whom pets can — or cannot — enhance well-being.</p>
<h2>What the research says</h2>
<p>Many studies have found that pet owners are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2021.1926707">less anxious</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02332-9">lonely</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2014.08.002">stressed out</a> compared to people who don’t have pets. Pet owners also report being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2016.1152721">more satisfied</a> with their life.</p>
<p>These studies often catch our attention because they tap into something many of us believe: that our pets are good for us. This type of research offers reassurance and validates the deep bond we may feel with our animal companions. But they only tell one side of the story.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042215">Other studies</a> have found no significant link between pet ownership and human well-being. In other words, people with pets don’t necessarily report higher well-being, nor do they have better mental health than those without pets.</p>
<p>Our research into pet ownership in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic was surprising: it found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10019-z">owning a pet was generally associated with lower well-being and mental health</a>.</p>
<p>The study included both pet owners and those without pets, aiming to compare the two groups on various well-being indicators during the pandemic. Pet owners reported lower well-being than non-pet owners during that time, including higher levels of loneliness.</p>
<p>These inconsistencies across different studies show that the connection between having a pet and feeling good isn’t so straightforward. Our study indicated some of these complexities. For example, compared to owners of other pets, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10019-z">dog owners reported higher well-being</a>.</p>
<p>To make sense of these mixed findings, researchers have started to look more closely at the nature of the relationship between owners and their pets. This approach may help us better understand the factors that influence whether pet ownership is beneficial for our well-being.</p>
<h2>The quality of the connection</h2>
<p>Just like our relationships with people, our bond with pets is complex. Many aspects of this connection can influence how much we benefit from it. It’s not just having a pet that counts, but how we bond and interact with them.</p>
<p>For example, owners who experience anxiety about being away from their pets or question their pet’s affection — reflecting an insecure attachment to a pet — also report feeling <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2024.2384210">more depressed</a>. Perceiving our pets as less understanding or more insensitive to our needs is also associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14030441">higher levels of depression, anxiety and loneliness</a>.</p>
<p>In contrast, the more people feel that they share characteristics with their pets (for example, loyalty, a mutual love of sleeping), the more likely they are to report <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2802_3">higher well-being</a>. Pets are also perceived as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2023.2210437">living in the present</a>, not dwelling on the past or worrying about the future. Interacting with our animal companions mindfully can help us focus on the present moment as well, which also promotes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-00872-z">greater well-being</a>.</p>
<p>By nurturing the positive aspects of our relationships with pets and working through the more difficult ones, we may ease the stress associated with some of the challenges of caring for them, including the financial resources required or the anxiety we feel when they get sick.</p>
<h2>Some challenges of pet ownership</h2>
<p>In fact, pet ownership comes with responsibilities and challenges that don’t seem to be discussed as often as the benefits. These more difficult aspects of caring for a pet can sometimes be emotionally distressing and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48731-z">negatively impact a pet owner’s psychological well-being</a>.</p>
<p>Having pets, no matter how much we love them, requires time, energy and financial resources. For some, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, this responsibility may represent an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10019-z">additional source of stress</a>. In our study, pet ownership was linked to lower well-being among women and among those with two or more children at home — groups already facing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09502-1">increased child-care and household demands</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, pet ownership was associated with lower well-being for people who were unemployed or in less stable forms of employment (for example, students, homemakers). Limited financial resources may have made pet care more challenging.</p>
<p>Likewise, having to care for a sick animal can be emotionally distressing for the owners. Caregivers of chronically sick dogs report <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-016-0211-x">feeling hopeless and powerless</a>, especially when they cannot help to alleviate their dogs’ suffering.</p>
<p>Other factors, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-68446-9">the pet’s behavioural problems and the grief</a> experienced after losing a pet, can also be difficult for owners. For those contemplating adoption, it’s important to take these realities into account to make an informed decision.</p>
<h2>Meeting our pet’s needs</h2>
<p>There are many important factors to consider when welcoming a new animal companion into our homes. Above all, we need to ensure we have the time, energy and resources to meet their needs.</p>
<p>Choosing a pet carefully, based on what we realistically can offer and on reliable information about their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9761-6_16">characteristics and needs</a>, gives us the best chance of having a positive and successful relationship.</p>
<p>Supporting our pets’ needs can also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00279-9">improve our own well-being</a> as owners, showing the potential for mutually beneficial interspecies relationships. But when those needs are not met, both pets and their owners can end up <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48731-z">feeling stressed and unwell</a>.</p>
<p>When considering adopting a pet, it’s important to ask: why do we want a pet? If the idea is to improve psychological well-being, our research suggests we might need to think again.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/259973/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/pets-dont-necessarily-improve-their-owners-well-being-259973">original article</a>.</em></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/people-with-attachment-anxiety-are-more-vulnerable-to-problematic-ai-use/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">People with attachment anxiety are more vulnerable to problematic AI use</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 17th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study finds that individuals with high attachment anxiety are more prone to developing problematic usage patterns with conversational artificial intelligence. This connection appears to be strengthened when these individuals form an emotional bond with the technology and have a tendency to view it as human-like. The research was published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S531805" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psychology Research and Behavior Managemen</a>t</em>.</p>
<p>The recent rise of conversational artificial intelligence, such as chatbots and virtual assistants, has provided people with a new way to interact and find companionship. These programs use natural language to hold personalized, one-on-one conversations. During periods of increased social isolation, like the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of people turned to these technologies. This trend raised an important question for scientists: Does this innovation pose risks for specific groups of people?</p>
<p>Researchers led by Shupeng Heng at Henan Normal University focused on individuals with attachment anxiety. This personality trait is characterized by a persistent fear of rejection or abandonment in relationships, leading to a strong need for closeness and reassurance. People with high attachment anxiety are already known to be at a higher risk for other forms of problematic technology use, like smartphone and online gaming addictions. The research team wanted to see if this same vulnerability applied to conversational artificial intelligence and to understand the psychological processes involved.</p>
<p>The investigation sought to explore the direct link between attachment anxiety and what the researchers call the problematic use of conversational artificial intelligence, a pattern of addictive-like engagement that negatively impacts daily life. Beyond this direct link, the researchers examined two other factors. They explored whether forming an emotional attachment to the artificial intelligence acted as a bridge between a person’s anxiety and their problematic use. They also investigated if a person’s tendency to see the artificial intelligence as human-like, a trait called anthropomorphic tendency, amplified these effects.</p>
<p>To conduct their investigation, the researchers recruited 504 Chinese adults who had experience using conversational artificial intelligence. The participants were gathered through an online platform and completed a series of questionnaires designed to measure four key variables. One questionnaire assessed their level of attachment anxiety, with items related to fears of rejection and a desire for closeness. Another measured their emotional attachment to the artificial intelligence they used, asking about the strength of the emotional bond they felt.</p>
<p>A third questionnaire evaluated their anthropomorphic tendency, which is the inclination to attribute human characteristics, emotions, and intentions to nonhuman things. Participants rated their agreement with statements like, “I think AI is alive.” Finally, a scale was used to measure the problematic use of conversational artificial intelligence. This scale included items describing addictive behaviors, such as trying and failing to cut back on use. The researchers then used statistical analyses to examine the relationships between these four measures.</p>
<p>The results first showed a direct connection between attachment anxiety and problematic use. Individuals who scored higher on attachment anxiety were also more likely to report patterns of compulsive and unhealthy engagement with conversational artificial intelligence. This finding supported the researchers’ initial hypothesis that this group is particularly vulnerable.</p>
<p>The analysis also revealed a more complex, indirect pathway. The study found that people with higher attachment anxiety were more likely to form a strong emotional attachment to the conversational artificial intelligence. This emotional attachment was, in itself, a strong predictor of problematic use. This suggests that emotional attachment serves as a connecting step. Anxious individuals’ need for connection may lead them to form a bond with the technology, and it is this bond that in part drives the problematic usage.</p>
<p>The most nuanced finding involved the role of anthropomorphic tendency. The researchers discovered that this trait acted as a moderator, meaning it changed the strength of the relationship between attachment anxiety and problematic use. When they separated participants into groups based on their tendency to see the artificial intelligence as human-like, a clear pattern emerged.</p>
<p>For individuals with a low anthropomorphic tendency, their level of attachment anxiety was not significantly related to their problematic use of the technology. In contrast, for those with a high tendency to see the artificial intelligence as human, attachment anxiety was a powerful predictor of problematic use. Seeing the artificial intelligence as a social partner appears to make anxious individuals much more susceptible to developing an unhealthy dependency.</p>
<p>This moderating effect also applied to the formation of emotional bonds. Anxious individuals developed emotional attachments to the artificial intelligence regardless of their anthropomorphic tendencies. However, this effect was much stronger for those with a high tendency to see the technology as human. In other words, having high attachment anxiety combined with a tendency to anthropomorphize created the strongest emotional bonds with the artificial intelligence, which then increased the risk of problematic use.</p>
<p>The study has some limitations that the authors acknowledge. Because the data was collected at a single point in time, it shows a relationship between these traits but cannot prove that attachment anxiety causes problematic use. Future research could follow individuals over time to better establish a causal link. Another area for future exploration is the design of the technology itself. Different types of conversational artificial intelligence, such as a simple chatbot versus a virtual assistant with a human-like avatar, may have different effects on users.</p>
<p>The researchers suggest that their findings have practical implications for the design of these technologies. For instance, developers could consider creating versions with less human-like features for users who may be at higher risk. They could also embed features into the software that monitor for excessive use or provide educational content about healthy technology engagement. For individuals identified as being at high risk, the study suggests that interventions aimed at reducing anxiety, such as mindfulness practices, could help decrease their dependency on these virtual companions.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S531805" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Attachment Anxiety and Problematic Use of Conversational Artificial Intelligence: Mediation of Emotional Attachment and Moderation of Anthropomorphic Tendencies</a>,” was authored by Shupeng Heng and Ziwan Zhang.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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