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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/testosterone-boost-has-no-effect-on-mens-risk-taking-or-generosity/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Testosterone boost has no effect on men’s risk-taking or generosity</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 16th 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A new and extensive study challenges the widely held belief that the hormone testosterone influences men’s economic choices, such as their willingness to take risks or act generously. The research, the largest of its kind, found that men who received a dose of testosterone made the same economic decisions as men who received a placebo. The findings were published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2508519122" target="_blank">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></em>.</p>
<p>Testosterone is a hormone primarily associated with the male reproductive system, though it is also present in women at lower levels. It is known to play a role in the development of male physical characteristics like muscle mass and a deeper voice. For years, scientists have also explored potential links between testosterone and behaviors like aggression, dominance, and competition. This led to an expansion of research into the hormone’s possible effects on economic preferences, which are the individual tendencies that guide people’s choices about money and resources. </p>
<p>The idea that a hormone linked to masculinity and dominance might also shape financial risk-taking or competitive drive was an intuitive one. However, the scientific literature on this topic has been filled with conflicting results. Some smaller studies suggested testosterone increased risk-taking, while others found no effect or even opposite effects. </p>
<p>Many of these prior experiments involved small numbers of participants and were not preregistered, meaning the plan for analyzing the data was not publicly declared beforehand. This left open the possibility that the reported findings could be false positives. Anna Dreber, a professor at the Stockholm School of Economics in Sweden, and a large team of international collaborators conducted this new study to provide more reliable evidence using a large sample and a preregistered design.</p>
<p>To investigate the hormone’s effects, the researchers recruited 1,000 healthy men between the ages of 18 and 45. The study used a double-blind, randomized controlled design, which is considered a gold standard in experimental research. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them knew who was receiving the active treatment. Half of the men were randomly assigned to self-administer an 11-milligram dose of testosterone gel through the nose, while the other half received an identical-looking placebo gel. After a 30-minute absorption period, during which testosterone levels were expected to peak, the participants completed a series of computer-based tasks designed to measure different economic behaviors.</p>
<p>The tasks included a variety of well-established economic games. To measure risk preferences, participants made a series of choices between a guaranteed amount of money and a lottery with uncertain outcomes. Their decisions were used to calculate their levels of risk aversion, which is a preference for a certain outcome over a risky one, and loss aversion, the tendency for the pain of losing to be psychologically more powerful than the pleasure of gaining.</p>
<p>Social preferences were measured using several games. In the ultimatum game, one participant, the proposer, had to offer a split of $10 to a second participant, the responder. If the responder accepted the offer, the money was divided as proposed. If the responder rejected it, both players received nothing. This game measures fairness, as proposers often make generous offers to avoid rejection, and responders may punish offers they perceive as unfair.</p>
<p>Another task was the trust game, where an investor could send a portion of their $10 to a trustee. The amount sent was tripled, and the trustee then decided how much of that larger sum to return to the investor. The amount sent by the investor is considered a measure of trust, while the amount returned by the trustee is a measure of trustworthiness. Generosity was assessed with the dictator game, in which a participant simply decided how much of a $10 endowment to give to another person who had no say in the matter.</p>
<p>Finally, the experiment measured the men’s willingness to compete. Participants first solved math problems and were paid based on how many they got right. They then performed the task again under competitive conditions. In the final stage, they could choose whether they wanted to be paid based on their own performance or to enter a competition where they would earn more if they outperformed an opponent.</p>
<p>After collecting all the data, the researchers analyzed the choices made by the men in the testosterone group and compared them to the choices of those in the placebo group. The results were clear and consistent across all measures. The study found no evidence that the testosterone treatment had any effect on any of the nine primary outcomes. Men who received testosterone did not take more risks, reject more unfair offers, show less trust, act less generously, or choose to compete more often than men who received the placebo.</p>
<p>The researchers also examined the relationship between the men’s natural baseline levels of testosterone, measured in saliva samples taken before the gel was administered, and their economic choices. Once again, they found no strong evidence of an association between a man’s existing testosterone levels and his behavior in the economic games.</p>
<p>“Earlier studies, often based on small samples, suggested that testosterone might impact our willingness to take risk or compete in economic settings,” Dreber explained. “But in this substantially larger experiment where we have also preregistered how we would do the analysis prior to observing the data to avoid bias, we do not find any effects of testosterone on economic decision making. Our findings give us strong evidence that short-term testosterone boosts don’t meaningfully change men’s economic choices.”</p>
<p>“This study is significant because it directly challenges the narrative that short-term fluctuations in testosterone explain why some people take bigger economic risks, reject unfair deals, or act more competitively in life,” said co-lead author Justin M. Carré, a professor at the Faculty of Arts and Science at Nipissing University in Canada.</p>
<p>“Our findings underscore the value of replication with larger samples and preregistered designs. Findings reported from small experiments can vanish when tested more rigorously,” added co-lead author Magnus Johannesson, a professor at the Department of Economics at the Stockholm School of Economics.</p>
<p>The authors acknowledge certain limitations of their study. Their findings are specific to the effects of a single, short-term dose of testosterone in men and cannot be generalized to women, who may respond differently to the hormone. It is also possible that different dosages, administration methods, or longer time periods between administration and testing could produce different results. </p>
<p>The study only examined the immediate effects of a temporary rise in testosterone. It does not speak to the potential long-term effects of testosterone exposure or its influence during critical developmental periods, such as puberty. Investigating these long-term or developmental effects in humans through experiments is ethically challenging. </p>
<p>However, the study’s null findings on the link between natural baseline testosterone and behavior are consistent with the experimental results. The study stands as a powerful conceptual replication attempt that fails to support a number of previously published, high-impact findings, suggesting that the role of short-term testosterone fluctuations in adult male economic behavior may be far smaller than previously thought.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2508519122" target="_blank">Investigating the effects of single-dose intranasal testosterone on economic preferences in a large randomized trial of men</a>,” was authored by Anna Dreber, Magnus Johannesson, Gideon Nave, Coren L. Apicella, Shawn N. Geniole, Taisuke Imai, Erik L. Knight, Dylan Manfredi, Pranjal H. Mehta, Valentina Proietti, Steven J. Stanton, Alina Zeltikova, Francesca R. Luberti, Triana Ortiz, and Justin M. Carré.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-research-reveals-the-double-edge-sword-of-transformative-spiritual-experiences/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New research reveals the double-edge sword of transformative spiritual experiences</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 16th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.70110" target="_blank">Stress & Health</a></em> suggests that powerful religious or spiritual experiences in adolescence may leave lasting psychological and social marks well into adulthood. The findings point to a complex picture: such experiences appear to increase a person’s engagement in social activities like voting and volunteering, while also being linked to heightened emotional vulnerability, including loneliness and signs of trauma.</p>
<p>The research provides new insights into how spiritual turning points shape long-term development, indicating that these moments may serve both as openings for connection and as indicators of deeper emotional strain.</p>
<p>Religious and spiritual experiences that deeply impact a person’s life are more common than one might think. National surveys show that over a third of Americans report having had such a moment. These events are often described as life-altering and imbued with a sense of personal transformation.</p>
<p>However, researchers have long debated the effects these experiences may have. While some studies connect general religious involvement with positive mental and physical health, much less is known about the specific, more intense experiences people describe as transformative. Are they helpful, harmful, or both? The current study set out to answer this by focusing on the long-term outcomes of these events across different areas of health and wellbeing.</p>
<p>The researchers focused on what they describe as “transformative religious or spiritual experiences.” These are moments that people say changed their lives, and which tend to impact both how they see themselves and how they relate to others. </p>
<p>“Transformative religious or spiritual experiences are not only life-changing but common. Since they are by definition life-changing, we naturally would like to know how they could have changed one’s life. The major things people are concerned with in life are physical health and mental wellbeing. Few studies examine that,” said study author <a href="https://pages.charlotte.edu/jobchen/" target="_blank">Zhuo Job Chen</a>, an associate professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.</p>
<p>“There is little longitudinal evidence showing how reports of transformative religious or spiritual experiences relate to health and wellbeing. There are correlational studies — but correlations only give you a snapshot of the moment — healthier people may report more religious or spiritual experiences, or people having these experiences may be more likely to say they are healthy. We don’t know the causal relationship.”</p>
<p>“This study investigates the outcomes of transformative religious or spiritual experiences using a nationally representative longitudinal sample,” Chen explained. “We also examined the antecedents of religious or spiritual experiences — what factors in life lead to having a transformative experience. This is also quite novel.” </p>
<p>The study used data from a large national survey called the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. This project followed more than 10,000 individuals across 14 years, starting in adolescence and continuing into early adulthood. At one point during late adolescence, participants were asked whether they had ever had a religious or spiritual experience that changed their life.</p>
<p>About 17 percent said yes. The researchers then looked at what kind of experiences these individuals had earlier in life and how their lives unfolded in the years that followed.</p>
<p>Before these transformative experiences occurred, the data suggest that individuals were more likely to come from difficult backgrounds. They often reported lower family income, strained relationships with parents, more depressive symptoms, and greater exposure to stress during childhood. At the same time, they also tended to report higher levels of religious involvement, including more frequent prayer and church attendance.</p>
<p>Years later, in early adulthood, those who had reported a transformative experience were more likely to show certain patterns. On one hand, they were more involved in civic and social life. They were more likely to volunteer and to vote—activities that often reflect a person’s engagement with their community and a desire to contribute beyond themselves.</p>
<p>On the other hand, they also showed signs of emotional strain. They reported feeling lonelier and were more likely to have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. Some reported poorer self-rated health and more symptoms of depression, although these findings were less consistent across different analyses.</p>
<p>Notably, there was no strong evidence linking these experiences to physical health outcomes like high blood pressure or cholesterol. The most consistent effects appeared in the domains of mental health and social engagement. Chen was surprised to find that “most of the effects concern with psychological health, not physical ones.”</p>
<p>The researchers interpret these patterns as support for the idea that transformative religious or spiritual experiences may disrupt the sense of self. This disruption may lead some people to feel more emotionally exposed or unsettled. At the same time, it may also encourage them to reach outward, toward social causes or communities that provide a sense of meaning and belonging.</p>
<p>“Having a transformative religious or spiritual experience might be a double-edged sword,” Chen told PsyPost. “It may indicate certain psychological vulnerability as a result of early life factors that weaken the ego integrity, including adverse childhood environments, negative parental dynamics, and heightened religious involvement. It in turn is associated with some markers of mental and social vulnerability (i.e., PTSD diagnosis and loneliness) later in life. However, having a transformative experience also predicts increased prosocial engagement (i.e., volunteering and voting), suggesting the potential role of meaning-making and integration in shaping long-term psychological and social outcomes.”</p>
<p>“In other words, I tend to view having a transformative religious or spiritual experience as a vulnerability of the self and yet an opportunity for connecting to something greater than the self. The self is transformed so that it is no longer the original small self, but has the potential to become something greater.”</p>
<p>As with all research, there are limitations. One important point is that participants were asked only a single question about whether they had a transformative experience, without any detail about what the experience involved. This means the study cannot distinguish between different types of experiences or understand the personal meaning people attached to them.</p>
<p>The researchers also note that the experiences were self-reported, which raises questions about how people interpreted the term “life-changing.” It is possible that people who were already vulnerable were more likely to label certain events as transformative. This makes it difficult to say whether the experience itself caused later outcomes or simply reflected a deeper underlying process.</p>
<p>The participants in the study were also relatively young at the final time point, with many still in their twenties. Some physical health outcomes may not yet have had time to develop, and it is unclear whether the same findings would apply to older adults. More long-term studies are needed to explore how these experiences play out across the lifespan.</p>
<p>Lastly, although the researchers controlled for a wide range of early life factors, the study was observational in nature. This means that it cannot prove cause and effect. It does, however, offer strong evidence of patterns worth further exploration.</p>
<p>“Transformative religious or spiritual experiences fit into the wider category of ‘mysticism,’ which I define as a family of extraordinary experiences that transcend the perceived reality and transform the individual,” Chen added. “This includes a wide range of experiences, spanning from cosmic consciousness, unitary experience, to typical religious experiences with deities, to spiritist encounters, shamanism and psychedelic experiences, and to psi phenomenon and nonphysicalism. I have <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00846724241255129" target="_blank">a paper outlining this large model</a>, and a forthcoming book <em>Psychology of Mysticism</em> with Cambridge University Press.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.70110" target="_blank">Between Vulnerability and Connection: Longitudinal Evidence on the Impact of Transformative Religious/Spiritual Experiences</a>,” was authored by Zhuo Job Chen, Renae Wilkinson, and Richard G. Cowden.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/your-brain-isnt-just-shrinking-with-age-its-doing-something-much-stranger/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Your brain isn’t just shrinking with age, it’s doing something much stranger</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 16th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-63628-3" target="_blank">Nature Communications</a></em> provides evidence that the human brain does not simply shrink with age but changes shape in consistent and measurable ways. The research suggests that these shape changes are closely tied to age-related cognitive decline and may offer a new way to detect dementia risk before symptoms appear.</p>
<p>Most research on brain aging has emphasized the loss of volume in specific regions, like the hippocampus, which plays a key role in memory. These studies have revealed that certain brain areas are more vulnerable to aging than others, showing pronounced shrinkage as people get older. However, the brain is not made up of isolated parts. Its regions are connected and interact in complex ways. The new study focused on these broader patterns, aiming to understand how aging affects the geometry of the entire brain rather than just the size of individual pieces.</p>
<p>The research was motivated by growing evidence that the brain’s shape affects how it functions. Studies have shown that the brain’s physical structure can place constraints on how different regions communicate. Subtle shifts in position, shape, or spacing between regions might disrupt the brain’s internal coordination. Despite this possibility, previous methods typically did not examine the geometry of the brain’s spatial layout. This study set out to fill that gap.</p>
<p>“It’s well known that the brain changes as we age, but most research has focused on individual regions, like the hippocampus, that are known to shrink over time,” said study author <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/nielsjanssen/" target="_blank">Niels Janssen</a>, an assistant professor of psychology at Universidad de La Laguna in Spain. “In our study, we looked instead at how aging affects the shape of the whole brain. We found that the brain doesn’t just get smaller—it sags, almost as if it’s slowly settling under its own weight. The lower parts of the hemispheres spread outward, while the upper parts draw together, producing a gentle downward slouch in the brain’s overall shape.”</p>
<p>The research team analyzed more than 2,600 brain scans from adults between the ages of 30 and 97. The research team analyzed 2,603 brain scans from adults between the ages of 30 and 97. These scans came from two large and independent datasets: the primary analysis used 2,039 scans from the Open Access Series of Imaging Studies, and the findings were then confirmed in a separate set of 564 scans from the Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience. All participants had undergone high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging, allowing the researchers to observe fine-grained structural features.</p>
<p>To measure changes in the brain’s shape, the team used a method that calculates the distance between points on the brain’s surface and across matching regions in the left and right hemispheres. For example, they assessed how far apart the left and right hippocampus were, and whether that distance changed with age. This approach allowed the researchers to identify patterns of “expansion,” where regions appeared to move farther apart, and “compression,” where they shifted closer together.</p>
<p>They found a consistent pattern across the samples. As people aged, the lower front parts of the brain tended to move outward, creating a subtle bulging effect. At the same time, the upper back parts of the brain drew inward. This produced a sloping or sagging effect, almost like the brain was slowly settling downward. These patterns became more pronounced with increasing age.</p>
<p>In addition to looking at overall shape, the study examined how the distances between paired brain regions across hemispheres changed over time. Many of these distances, especially between temporal and subcortical areas, increased with age. These shifts were not merely byproducts of brain shrinkage. Even after accounting for changes in volume, the spatial shifts remained significant.</p>
<p>The study also linked these shape changes to cognitive performance. Participants who performed worse on memory and executive function tests tended to show more extreme patterns of expansion and compression. For example, individuals with poorer memory showed greater separation between parts of the temporal lobe and more compression in parietal regions. These associations were found even after accounting for age, suggesting that shape changes might track with cognitive function more closely than age alone.</p>
<p>“Understanding how the brain ages is a complex challenge that requires looking at it from many angles,” Janssen told PsyPost. “Most studies focus on the microscopic level—on molecules and cells—but our findings show that the shape of the brain itself also changes in meaningful ways. Viewing the brain at this larger scale may provide new insights into the mechanisms of healthy aging and the changes that occur in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.”</p>
<p>Although the findings are consistent and supported by two independent datasets, there are several limitations. One is that most of the data came from cross-sectional samples, meaning different people were compared at different ages. This makes it difficult to track how an individual’s brain changes over time. The study did include a smaller group of participants scanned more than once, and their results supported the larger trends. Still, more long-term studies are needed to confirm these patterns.</p>
<p>Another limitation is that the method used in the study measures distances between points in space, but not the biological mechanisms driving these changes. For example, it remains unclear whether the observed expansion and compression are due to changes in tissue composition, fluid balance, or other factors such as gravity and head positioning. </p>
<p>Future research may investigate whether mechanical stress, such as gradual downward shifting of the brain, contributes to age-related damage. This could open new pathways for understanding how structural changes lead to functional decline. It may also be possible to develop early warning systems based on the shape of the brain, identifying those most at risk for cognitive impairment before symptoms appear.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study presents a new way of thinking about brain aging. It suggests that how the brain is shaped may matter just as much as how much brain tissue is lost. Subtle shifts in geometry may affect how different parts of the brain communicate and how efficiently they work together. Some regions, like the entorhinal cortex, sit close to hard structures like the base of the skull and might be particularly vulnerable to pressure from surrounding tissue. </p>
<p>“This could help explain why the entorhinal cortex is ground zero of Alzheimer’s pathology,” said study co-author Michael Yassa, the director of the University of California, Irvine’s Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory and James L. McGaugh Endowed Chair. “If the aging brain is gradually shifting in a way that squeezes this fragile region against a rigid boundary, it may create the perfect storm for damage to take root. Understanding that process gives us a whole new way to think about the mechanisms of Alzheimer’s disease and the possibility of early detection.”</p>
<p>“We’re just beginning to unlock how brain geometry shapes disease. But this research shows that the answers may be hiding in plain sight – in the shape of the brain itself.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-63628-3" target="_blank">Age-related constraints on the spatial geometry of the brain</a>,” was authored by Yuritza Y. Escalante, Jenna N. Adams, Michael A. Yassa, and Niels Janssen.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-study-uncovers-key-psychological-link-between-childhood-experiences-and-adult-grit/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New study uncovers key psychological link between childhood experiences and adult grit</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 15th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study has identified a key psychological mechanism that connects a person’s childhood experiences with their level of grit as a young adult. The research found that both negative and positive childhoods are linked to an individual’s capacity for long-term perseverance, and this relationship is entirely explained by their ability to manage emotions. The findings were published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251363891" target="_blank">Psychological Reports</a></em>.</p>
<p>The quality of grit, defined as the passion and perseverance to achieve long-term goals, is a strong predictor of success in many areas of life. While it is known that grit can be shaped by a person’s upbringing, the specific pathways through which childhood experiences influence this trait are not fully understood. </p>
<p>A team of researchers led by Bhoomika N. Jadhav from the Vellore Institute of Technology in India sought to investigate this connection more deeply. They were particularly interested in Generation Z, a generation that grew up in an era of rapid technological and social change. The researchers hypothesized that emotional regulation, the ability to control one’s own emotional responses, might be the missing link that explains how childhood events affect a person’s later grittiness.</p>
<p>To explore this, the research team conducted a cross-sectional study involving 548 young adults in India. All participants were born in 1997 or later, placing them in the Generation Z cohort, with an average age of about 20 years old. Data was collected using an electronic survey that included a series of established self-report questionnaires. This method allowed the researchers to gather information on four distinct psychological constructs from each participant.</p>
<p>Participants first completed the Short Grit Scale to measure their level of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. They also filled out the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire, which asks about ten different types of negative experiences before the age of 18, including abuse, neglect, and household challenges. To capture the positive side of upbringing, the researchers used the Benevolent Childhood Experiences scale, which assesses supportive and comforting experiences, such as feeling safe and having a caregiver to confide in. </p>
<p>Finally, to measure emotional regulation, participants responded to items from the Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test that specifically assessed their ability to manage their own emotions and the emotions of others.</p>
<p>The initial analysis of the data revealed clear and significant associations between the variables. As the researchers expected, young adults who reported a higher number of adverse childhood experiences also tended to report lower levels of both grit and emotional regulation. This finding is consistent with a large body of previous research showing the lasting negative impact of early life adversity.</p>
<p>The study also confirmed the beneficial effects of a positive upbringing. Participants who reported more benevolent childhood experiences showed a strong tendency to have higher levels of both grit and emotional regulation. These initial correlations established that a person’s childhood environment, whether negative or positive, was directly related to their capacity for perseverance and their ability to manage feelings in young adulthood.</p>
<p>The central part of the investigation involved a more advanced statistical method known as structural equation modeling. This technique allowed the researchers to test whether emotional regulation acted as a mediator, or a pathway, between childhood experiences and grit. </p>
<p>The model showed that emotional regulation fully mediated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and grit. This means that the negative impact of adversity on grit was completely explained by its negative impact on emotional regulation. In other words, a difficult childhood appears to diminish grit primarily by hindering a person’s development of emotional management skills.</p>
<p>A similar pattern emerged for positive experiences. The analysis also confirmed that emotional regulation fully mediated the connection between benevolent childhood experiences and grit. A supportive and safe childhood does not appear to directly create a grittier adult. </p>
<p>Instead, it seems to build a person’s capacity for emotional regulation, and it is this enhanced emotional skill that fosters greater perseverance and passion for long-term goals. For both negative and positive childhoods, the direct statistical link to grit disappeared once emotional regulation was accounted for, indicating its central role.</p>
<p>The researchers note some limitations to their study. The findings are based on self-report questionnaires, which can be affected by factors like memory bias or the desire to answer in a socially acceptable way. The study’s design was cross-sectional, meaning all data was collected at a single point in time. This approach can identify strong associations but cannot definitively prove cause and effect. </p>
<p>A longitudinal study that follows individuals over many years would be needed to confirm that childhood experiences lead to changes in emotional regulation, which in turn shape grit. The sample was also limited to literate, English-speaking young adults in India, so the findings may not be generalizable to all populations.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study offers important directions for future research and practical applications. Future studies could explore these relationships in different cultural contexts or use longitudinal designs to track development over time. </p>
<p>From a practical standpoint, the findings suggest that efforts to build grit, particularly in young adults who have faced adversity, should focus on strengthening emotional regulation skills. Programs that teach individuals how to identify, understand, and manage their feelings may be highly effective in helping them cultivate the perseverance needed to achieve their long-term ambitions. The research also highlights the protective power of a positive childhood, suggesting that promoting supportive and stable environments for children is an effective way to foster emotionally healthy and resilient adults.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251363891" target="_blank">The Association of Adverse and Benevolent Childhood Experiences with Grit Among Gen Z: The Mediating Role of Emotional Regulation</a>,” was authored by Bhoomika N. Jadhav, E. P. Abdul Azeez, Jyoti Sharma, Archana Yadav, Varshini S. Athreya, and Manoj Mathew.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/secure-friendships-may-protect-single-men-from-shame-and-depression-linked-to-porn-use/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Secure friendships may protect single men from shame and depression linked to porn use</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 15th 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2025.2558629" target="_blank">Sexual Health & Compulsivity</a></em> suggests that close friendships may protect single men from depression associated with pornography use that clashes with their moral beliefs. The findings suggest that when single men use pornography but believe doing so is wrong, this conflict can increase sexual shame and loneliness, which in turn may lead to depression. However, secure attachments with a best friend appear to lessen the psychological toll of this moral conflict.</p>
<p>Pornography use is common, especially among men. While much research has examined its effects in the context of romantic relationships, fewer studies have looked at what happens when single men experience distress related to their pornography habits. Many men report internal conflict when their behavior violates personal or religious values. </p>
<p>This gap between values and behavior, known as moral incongruence, has been linked to emotional distress in previous studies. However, the specific pathways through which this distress unfolds—and whether supportive friendships can buffer its effects—had not been fully explored in single men.</p>
<p>Given the rise in the number of single adults and the social and emotional challenges they often face, the researchers aimed to understand how moral conflict around pornography affects single men’s mental health. They were especially interested in the roles of sexual shame and loneliness, as well as whether having a secure friendship could protect against these outcomes.</p>
<p>“I got interested in this topic because I noticed there wasn’t much research looking specifically at single men and how they experience moral conflict around pornography use,” said study author Brandon Waggoner, an assistant professor at Liberty University. “A lot of the studies out there focus on married or religious groups, but singles often get overlooked. In my clinical work, almost all pornography use begins when someone is single. So, if we could find ways to help singles with this unwanted behavior, we could curb the problem at the source. It felt like an important gap to address.”</p>
<p>The study involved 167 single men between the ages of 19 and 30 who reported using pornography in the previous six months. Participants were recruited online and completed a series of questionnaires measuring several psychological variables, including how often they viewed pornography, their level of moral disapproval of such use, feelings of sexual shame, loneliness, symptoms of depression, and how securely they felt attached to their best friend.</p>
<p>To quantify moral incongruence, the researchers used a combination of two measures: how frequently the participants reported using pornography and how strongly they believed such use was morally wrong. This allowed the researchers to capture the degree of internal conflict experienced by each participant.</p>
<p>Statistical analyses showed that higher levels of moral incongruence were linked to increased sexual shame. In turn, sexual shame was associated with greater loneliness and more severe symptoms of depression. This pattern suggests a possible pathway: men who use pornography but feel it is morally wrong may experience shame about their sexual behavior, which leads to social withdrawal and feelings of isolation, which may then contribute to depressive symptoms.</p>
<p>Crucially, the presence of a close, secure friendship appeared to change this dynamic. Men who felt comfortable and emotionally secure in their closest friendship were less likely to report intense sexual shame, even when they experienced high levels of moral conflict about their pornography use. Secure friendships also appeared to weaken the link between moral incongruence and depression. In contrast, men who reported avoidant or anxious attachment styles in their friendships—meaning they either feared abandonment or avoided emotional closeness—tended to experience stronger effects of moral incongruence on shame and depression.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted what is known as a moderated mediation analysis. This approach tested whether the indirect effect of moral incongruence on depression—through shame and loneliness—was stronger or weaker depending on the quality of the participants’ friendships. Results supported the idea that close, secure friendships can interrupt this emotional pathway, reducing the risk of depression.</p>
<p>“I was honestly surprised by how much friendships mattered,” Waggoner told PsyPost. “I expected relationships to play a role, but the strength of their protective effect was bigger than I thought. It really showed me that friendships aren’t just ‘nice to have’—they can make a big difference in someone’s wellbeing. That was encouraging to see.”</p>
<p>“The main takeaway is that when people feel conflicted about their pornography use, it can lead to shame, which then fuels loneliness and depression. But the really hopeful part is that having strong, secure friendships can help protect against these effects. Friendships don’t erase the conflict, but they make it less damaging. Rather than teaching individuals who do not like their pornography use to ‘white knuckle it,’ they can find another healthy pleasure to replace the behavior use. It shows just how powerful healthy relationships are for mental health.”</p>
<p>But the study, like all research, has some limitations. The study relied on self-reported data, which may be influenced by social desirability bias. Participants may have underreported their pornography use or exaggerated their moral concerns. It was also cross-sectional, meaning all data were collected at a single point in time. This limits the ability to draw conclusions about cause and effect.</p>
<p>“It’s possible that depression makes people more prone to shame about their behaviors, not just the other way around,” Waggoner noted. “Non-religious individuals or those that do not see their pornography use a problem would confound some of the findings. Also, the study only looked at single men, so the results may not apply to everyone. Future research can dig deeper into those questions.”</p>
<p>Future research could explore these dynamics using longitudinal methods that track individuals over time. It would also be useful to examine whether interventions aimed at strengthening friendships or fostering secure attachment styles can reduce the mental health risks associated with moral incongruence. Researchers may also consider other protective factors, such as self-compassion or adaptive coping strategies, that could help individuals manage shame without withdrawing socially.</p>
<p>“I’d love to work with churches or religious organizations to help them teach another alternative to mitigate pornography use other than accountability,” Waggoner said. “I also want to look at practical ways counselors can help people who are struggling with moral conflict and shame. Long-term, I hope this research helps reduce stigma and highlights the importance of building strong, supportive relationships. At the end of the day, it’s about giving people healthier paths to deal with these struggles.”</p>
<p>“I think the big thing to remember is that this study isn’t about judging pornography use—it’s about understanding how people’s values and behaviors can clash and create distress. A lot of people deal with this quietly, and it can feel isolating. Knowing that friendships can make such a big difference is encouraging. It’s a reminder that connection and support are really powerful tools for mental health.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2025.2558629" target="_blank">Out of the Spiral: How Friendships for Single Men Moderate the Effects of Morally Incongruent Pornography Use on Sexual Shame, Loneliness, and Depression</a>,” was authored by Brandon Waggoner, Fred Volk, and Hannah Murch.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/researchers-studied-psychopathy-and-mind-reading-ability-one-result-was-particularly-surprising/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Researchers studied psychopathy and mind-reading ability. One result was particularly surprising.</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 15th 2025, 11:00</div>
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<p><p>People who score higher on certain psychopathic traits may actually have a sharper understanding of other people’s thoughts and intentions, according to new research published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2025.102054" target="_blank">Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry</a></em>. Specifically, adults who reported more callousness and lack of empathy—traits associated with psychopathic “meanness”—performed better on a test designed to assess how accurately someone can interpret social situations. The findings suggest that this form of psychopathy might be linked to a clearer but emotionally disengaged view of others’ minds.</p>
<p>Understanding how people think and feel about others’ mental states—a skill known as theory of mind—plays a central role in social life. It allows people to predict how others will behave, recognize emotions, and adjust their actions accordingly. This ability can promote kindness and cooperation. But it can also be misused. Individuals who are manipulative or exploitative may use their insight into others’ thoughts to take advantage of them.</p>
<p>This idea is relevant to psychopathy, a personality pattern that includes traits such as fearlessness, emotional coldness, impulsivity, and lack of guilt. While many studies have suggested that people with higher levels of psychopathic traits struggle to interpret emotions or intentions accurately, others have proposed the opposite. Some researchers have argued that certain psychopathic traits might be linked to an intact or even heightened ability to understand how others think—just without the emotional engagement that usually guides compassionate behavior.</p>
<p>Past studies have produced mixed findings. One reason for the confusion may be that many older studies used tests that didn’t clearly distinguish different types of mind-reading errors. For example, someone might misunderstand a social situation because they fail to grasp another person’s thoughts or feelings (known as under-mentalizing), or because they read too much into the situation and wrongly attribute motives (over-mentalizing). Without knowing which type of error is being made, it’s hard to draw conclusions about how psychopathic traits affect social understanding.</p>
<p>To explore these questions more clearly, researchers recruited 92 adults from the community and university setting. The participants were between 18 and 37 years old, with no known history of mental illness or neurological conditions. They completed a series of questionnaires and a specialized task called the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition.</p>
<p>This task involves watching a short film showing four friends interacting over dinner. The story includes moments of flirting, sarcasm, misunderstandings, and emotionally loaded exchanges. At regular points during the film, viewers are asked multiple-choice questions about what the characters are thinking or feeling. The test scores how well participants can infer others’ mental states and whether their mistakes are due to reading too little or too much into the situation.</p>
<p>Participants also completed a self-report questionnaire measuring psychopathic traits, which included three components: boldness (social dominance and fearlessness), meanness (lack of empathy and cruelty), and disinhibition (impulsivity and poor emotional control). The researchers also assessed each participant’s estimated intelligence, autism-related traits, and gender, since these factors are known to influence how people perform on social cognition tasks.</p>
<p>The results indicated that meanness—but not boldness or disinhibition—was linked to better performance on the movie-based task. People who scored higher on meanness made fewer mistakes overall, and particularly fewer mistakes involving misinterpretation of thoughts and intentions. They also made fewer over-mentalizing errors, suggesting they were less likely to exaggerate or misread others’ motives.</p>
<p>These findings held even after accounting for differences in intelligence, autism-related traits, and gender. Notably, men in the sample tended to make more cognitive errors than women, but this gender difference did not explain the link between meanness and performance.</p>
<p>There was no evidence that people high in meanness made more under-mentalizing errors. Instead, they appeared to be more precise in interpreting others’ thoughts while avoiding the tendency to overanalyze or attribute unfounded intentions.</p>
<p>This pattern stands out against earlier research in adolescents, which had found that callous traits were related to more over-mentalizing mistakes. The researchers suggest that this may reflect a shift with age. In younger individuals, difficulties in emotion processing might interfere with understanding others. As people mature, those with higher psychopathic traits might compensate by relying more on logical or cognitive strategies to interpret social situations. This could lead to better performance on certain kinds of tests, even if their emotional detachment remains.</p>
<p>The findings offer a new perspective on how different psychopathic traits relate to social understanding. Rather than showing a blanket impairment, people high in meanness may actually excel in interpreting others’ mental states, at least in terms of cognitive accuracy. This could help explain how some individuals with these traits manage to manipulate others effectively. Their skill in reading minds may not be used to connect or empathize, but to plan and exploit.</p>
<p>The study also raises questions about how we define and measure theory of mind. Past research has often used tasks that emphasize emotion recognition through facial expressions or eye movements, which may not fully capture the complex skill of interpreting real-life social situations. The movie-based task used in this study offers a more naturalistic view of how people think about others in everyday life.</p>
<p>However, the study has limitations. Most participants were young adults and predominantly female, which may limit how widely the results can be applied. The study also relied on self-reported personality traits, which can be influenced by how people perceive or present themselves. The researchers did attempt to reduce bias by using a performance-based task to assess mentalizing, but more research using multiple methods is needed.</p>
<p>Future studies could build on this work by including broader and more diverse populations, such as older adults or individuals with more severe psychopathic traits. Long-term research might also help clarify whether the relationship between psychopathy and mentalizing changes over time. It will also be important to explore how different pathways—emotional and cognitive—contribute to how people understand others.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2025.102054" target="_blank">Psychopathic meanness is associated with fewer over-mentalizing errors</a>,” was authored by Steven M. Gillespie and Ahmad M. Abu-Akel.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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