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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-research-uncovers-a-psychological-paradox-in-choosiness-and-sex/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New research uncovers a psychological paradox in choosiness and sex</a>
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<p><p>A new study published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-025-03160-z" target="_blank">Archives of Sexual Behavior</a></em> provides evidence that how selective people are when choosing potential romantic partners may be linked to how often they engage in partnered sex — but in an unexpected way. Single adults who <em>say</em> they are picky about their romantic preferences tend to report <em>more</em> frequent partnered sexual activity, while those who <em>act</em> more selective when rating dating profiles tend to report <em>less</em>. This pattern suggests that the way we measure “choosiness” may reveal very different things about how it relates to sexual behavior.</p>
<p>The findings arrive amid growing concern over declining sexual activity among young adults. National surveys suggest a steady rise in the number of men and women reporting a year or more of sexual inactivity, a trend that has become more pronounced over the past two decades. These shifts have sparked ongoing debate about the underlying causes—especially given that partnered sex is often linked to emotional well-being, better physical health, relationship satisfaction, and even increased longevity.</p>
<p>“My colleague Michael did his research on incels (shorthand for ‘involuntary celibate’ – people, mostly men, who are single despite their efforts to be in a relationship), which has received significant media attention over the past few years,” said study author <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/henry-c-a6ba7314a/" target="_blank">Henry Close</a>, a clinical psychology registrar at The University of Queensland. “Building on that, my supervisor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UdBUdIIAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">Fiona Kate Barlow</a> and I were curious about the mental health aspects of social and sexual isolation, and how people struggle to pursue romantic and sexual relationships.”</p>
<p>Rather than relying solely on people’s own descriptions of how picky they are, the researchers used two different strategies to measure choosiness. One involved asking participants to list how many “non-negotiable” personality traits they required in a romantic partner. The more traits listed as essential, the higher the participant’s “stated choosiness.” The second approach focused on actual behavior: participants were asked to rate a series of dating profiles and indicate whether they would find the person attractive, consider dating them, or go on a date. The fewer profiles someone expressed interest in, the higher their “revealed choosiness.”</p>
<p>To gather the data, the researchers surveyed 340 single, heterosexual men and women in the United States, ranging in age from 18 to 40. The participants were recruited through an online platform and were asked a range of questions about their dating preferences, how frequently they engaged in different types of partnered sexual activity over the past year, and whether they identified as being single by choice or not. About 36% of participants reported being virgins, and a similar percentage said they had not engaged in any sexual activity in the past year. </p>
<p>The researchers found that people who scored higher on stated choosiness — by naming more essential traits in a partner — were more likely to report having had sex in the last year. This association held even after accounting for other factors known to influence sexual frequency, such as age, gender, and how attractive people rated themselves.</p>
<p>In contrast, people who were more selective when rating dating profiles (revealed choosiness) were less likely to report having had sex in the past year. Again, this pattern remained even when controlling for self-rated attractiveness and other demographic variables. The findings indicate that different forms of choosiness may have opposite associations with sexual behavior.</p>
<p>“We didn’t expect the difference between personality-based (stated) choosiness and appearance-based (revealed) choosiness,” Close told PsyPost. “We expected that choosiness would result in less sex, regardless of type of choosiness.”</p>
<p>One key nuance emerged when researchers considered whether participants were single by choice. For those who said they would have preferred to be in a relationship, high revealed choosiness was linked to lower sexual frequency. But for participants who said they were single by choice, revealed choosiness did not predict how often they had sex. This suggests that being highly selective about potential partners may reduce sexual opportunities — but primarily for people who are actively looking for a partner.</p>
<p>The contrast between stated and revealed choosiness presents a puzzle. Why would people who report more rigid preferences in theory be more sexually active in practice? One possibility, the authors suggest, is that having clearly defined standards might signal confidence or commitment to dating. This could make such individuals appear more attractive to potential partners. People who express clear preferences may also be more engaged in the dating process overall and more willing to pursue or respond to opportunities.</p>
<p>In contrast, those who are choosier in practice — by rejecting more profiles — might be limiting their opportunities too early in the dating process. Especially on dating apps, where interactions often start with a brief impression, high levels of selectivity may reduce the likelihood of meeting someone in the first place. This could be especially relevant for people who aren’t single by choice but are actively seeking romantic or sexual connection.</p>
<p>“Being overly choosy based on appearance may be related to having less sex while choosiness in terms of personality traits may be correlated to having more sex,” Close explained. “More specifically, this may suggest that for singles in search of sex or romance, being clear and confident about one’s preferences may be linked with greater success; while being overly selective when evaluating dating profiles may result in fewer opportunities for sex and related romance.”</p>
<p>The researchers also looked at whether gender moderated the link between choosiness and sexual frequency. They found that while women tended to be higher in stated choosiness than men, gender did not significantly influence the relationship between choosiness and sexual activity. This challenges some evolutionary assumptions that women’s sexual behavior is more heavily shaped by selectivity, and suggests that choosiness may play a similar role for both men and women when it comes to actual sexual outcomes.</p>
<p>One strength of the study is that it includes both behavioral and self-report measures of choosiness, providing a more layered picture of how selectivity operates in real life. Past research has shown that people’s stated preferences often don’t match their behavior, and this study supports that idea. Neither measure of choosiness was associated with whether people said they were choosy, and self-described choosiness wasn’t related to sexual frequency at all.</p>
<p>Still, the study has limitations. Because the data are correlational, the findings don’t suggest any firm cause-and-effect relationship. It’s possible, for example, that people who are less successful in dating become more selective over time, rather than choosiness leading to less sex. The researchers also note that they didn’t ask participants about the kind of sexual activity they preferred, which could have influenced the results.</p>
<p>The researchers encourage future work to explore more nuanced types of choosiness — such as selectivity based on appearance, personality, or values — and how these relate to different dating goals, including casual encounters versus long-term relationships. It will also be important to extend this research beyond heterosexual singles to include partnered individuals and those across diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.</p>
<p>“I would like to take these findings into my clinical practice as a psychologist,” Close said. “So many young people are feeling thwarted and jaded by the current dating scene and having to be ‘on the apps’ (dating applications like Tinder and Hinge). I see my clients spend inordinate amounts of time just swiping left and right, getting that hit of dopamine and validation by chatting briefly, and then not meeting up or getting ghosted (where the person abruptly stops responding).”</p>
<p>“At a broader level, the research emphasises the need to recognize sexual inactivity as a growing and potentially impactful phenomenon. Relationship education efforts should consider not just safety and consent, but also how people navigate choice, self-perception, and motivation in an increasingly complex dating landscape.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-025-03160-z" target="_blank">Choosiness as a Predictor of Sexual (In)frequency in Single Heterosexual Adults</a>,” was authored by Henry S. G. Close, Lewis Nitschinsk, Brendan P. Zietsch, and Fiona Kate Barlow</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/obesity-before-pregnancy-linked-to-autism-like-behavior-in-male-offspring-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Obesity before pregnancy linked to autism-like behavior in male offspring, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Aug 19th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14151201" target="_blank">Cells</a></em> provides evidence that maternal obesity prior to pregnancy—rather than during it—may influence the development of autism-like traits in offspring. Researchers found that male mice born from obese egg donors showed altered social behaviors and repetitive grooming patterns, even when gestated and raised by healthy mothers. These changes were associated with shifts in brain gene activity and epigenetic modifications, suggesting that a mother’s health before conception can shape her child’s neurodevelopment in lasting ways.</p>
<p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, along with restricted or repetitive behaviors. It affects about one in 36 children in the United States and is diagnosed more often in boys than in girls. </p>
<p>While there is a strong genetic component to ASD, most individuals do not carry known high-impact mutations. This has led researchers to explore how environmental and epigenetic factors—those that influence gene expression without altering DNA sequences—might contribute to its development, especially during early stages of life.</p>
<p>Previous studies have suggested that maternal obesity is associated with a higher risk of ASD in children. However, it has remained unclear whether this link is driven by conditions present before conception, during pregnancy, or both. Researchers were also unsure how these environmental exposures might influence the brain’s development at a molecular level. The new study, led by University of Hawaii professors Alika Maunakea and Monika Ward, aimed to address this uncertainty by using a mouse model that could separate the effects of maternal health before and during pregnancy.</p>
<p>“We were concerned about what is driving the worldwide increasing rates of ASD, and knew from prior epidemiologic studies (in humans) that maternal obesity leads to an increased risk of children with autism by 50-60%. (It is not the only risk factor, but one of many). But whether maternal obesity before or during pregnancy introduced that risk was not known. Autism is one area where we know both genetics and environment play roles, but the timing of environmental influences is still a mystery,” the researchers told PsyPost.</p>
<p>“Our lab realized we could use a mouse model with in vitro fertilization to isolate those two periods, leveraging the expertise in this field at the <a href="https://www.ibr.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank">Yanagimachi Institute for Biogenesis Research</a>, and that opened the door to finding out exactly when and how maternal health might affect neurodevelopment.”</p>
<p>To isolate the effects of maternal obesity before conception from those during pregnancy, the researchers used in vitro fertilization (IVF) and embryo transfer techniques. They first fed female mice either a high-fat diet (to induce obesity) or a normal diet for 8–10 weeks. Eggs from these females were fertilized in the lab with sperm from healthy males and implanted into healthy surrogate mothers that had not been exposed to obesity.</p>
<p>This setup allowed the researchers to compare three groups: one in which the egg donor was obese (but the surrogate was not), one in which the surrogate was obese (but the egg donor was not), and one where both were healthy. All offspring were then fostered by normal mothers to eliminate differences in postnatal care. The team monitored behavioral development in male and female offspring from early life into adolescence.</p>
<p>The researchers found that male mice whose biological mothers were obese before conception—but who were gestated and raised by healthy mothers—showed behavioral signs associated with ASD. These included changes in vocal communication during infancy, reduced social interaction in adolescence, and repetitive self-grooming behaviors. These behavioral traits were not observed in male offspring from obese surrogates or in female offspring, regardless of maternal obesity exposure.</p>
<p>“The biggest surprise was that obesity during pregnancy alone didn’t produce the same effects,” Maunakea and Ward told PsyPost. “We expected both pre-conception and gestational obesity to have an impact, but in our model, only preconception exposure led to autism-like behaviors. That really highlights how sensitive the egg is to the mother’s health before conception, and it shifts how we think about timing for prevention.”</p>
<p>The researchers also ran tests for anxiety-like behaviors, which showed no differences between groups, suggesting that the behavioral changes were specific to domains relevant to autism rather than general distress or emotional reactivity.</p>
<p>Not all male offspring in the pre-conception obesity group showed these traits, which the authors say reflects the variability often seen in autism presentations. They classified the most affected mice as the “ASD” subgroup and conducted additional molecular analyses on this group compared to unaffected “NESTED” mice.</p>
<p>To understand the biological basis for these behaviors, the researchers examined the brains of the male offspring. They focused on two regions—the cortex and hippocampus—that are known to be involved in social behavior and learning.</p>
<p>In the cortex, they found that male offspring with autism-like traits showed changes in the expression of several genes. Two genes in particular—Homer1 and Zswim6—stood out because of their known roles in synaptic function and prior links to autism in humans. The short form of Homer1, known as Homer1a, was elevated in the ASD group and is known to interfere with the scaffolding of synapses, potentially altering how neurons communicate.</p>
<p>To find out what might be driving these changes, the team looked at DNA methylation, a chemical modification that helps regulate whether genes are turned on or off. Using tissue from the hippocampus, they discovered that the promoter region of the alternative Homer1a isoform was significantly less methylated—meaning more “open” for expression—in ASD-classified mice. This was not the case in unaffected mice from the same group or in controls.</p>
<p>These findings suggest that maternal obesity prior to conception can reprogram gene expression in the developing brain through epigenetic changes, particularly affecting isoform usage—where different versions of a gene are produced with different functions.</p>
<p>The researchers argue that their results highlight a sensitive developmental window that has received relatively little attention: the period before conception. This study suggests that the mother’s health at the time her eggs are maturing may play a key role in shaping long-term outcomes in offspring, especially for neurodevelopmental conditions like autism.</p>
<p>The findings also suggest that specific molecular markers, such as the methylation pattern and isoform expression of Homer1, could potentially be used as early indicators of atypical brain development.</p>
<p>“One clear takeaway is that a mother’s health before pregnancy matters—not just during pregnancy,” Maunakea and Ward explained. “The months leading up to conception may be a sensitive time for setting the stage for a child’s brain development. That doesn’t mean every child born to a mother with obesity will have autism—far from it. But it does mean that taking steps to improve overall health before pregnancy, such as good nutrition, regular activity, and managing conditions like diabetes, could have benefits beyond what we previously appreciated.”</p>
<p>As with all research, there are limitations. The sample size for molecular analyses was relatively small, and only male offspring were included due to the absence of strong behavioral effects in females. The analyses also used bulk brain tissue, which doesn’t account for differences across specific cell types. In addition, although the observed associations between DNA methylation and gene expression were compelling, causality was not directly tested.</p>
<p>“This is an animal study, so we can’t assume the findings apply exactly the same way in humans,” the researchers noted. “We also only looked at first-generation offspring and stopped at early adolescence in the mice. We don’t yet know if these effects last into adulthood or if they might be passed down to the next generation.”</p>
<p>“And importantly, autism is complex—many children with autism are born to mothers who had healthy weights, and many children of mothers with obesity do not develop autism. This is about understanding one possible pathway, not the whole picture.”</p>
<p>Future research will focus on several open questions. The team plans to investigate whether these changes persist into adulthood and how they evolve over time. They also hope to pinpoint the specific molecular pathways through which maternal obesity affects egg development and whether interventions—such as dietary changes or supplements—can reduce or reverse these effects.</p>
<p>One long-term goal is to identify early biomarkers that could help guide personalized prenatal care. The researchers are also exploring whether these epigenetic changes can be passed on to the next generation, which would suggest a transgenerational impact of pre-conceptional health.</p>
<p>“I think it’s important to remember that this research is about opportunity, not blame,” Maunakea and Ward added. “Maternal obesity is shaped by many factors outside individual control—like access to healthy foods, safe spaces to exercise, and healthcare resources. Our findings point to a window where supportive health policies, community programs, and healthcare guidance could make a difference for both mothers and children. And beyond autism, improving metabolic health before conception is likely to benefit many aspects of lifelong health for both mother and child.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14151201" target="_blank">Pre-Conception Maternal Obesity Confers Autism Spectrum Disorder-like Behaviors in Mice Offspring Through Neuroepigenetic Dysregulation</a>,” was authored by Nina P. Allan, Amada Torres, Michael J. Corley, Brennan Y. Yamamoto, Chantell Balaan, Yasuhiro Yamauchi, Rafael Peres, Yujia Qin, Vedbar S. Khadka, Youping Deng, Monika A. Ward, and Alika K. Maunakea/</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/antidepressant-use-declines-in-adults-after-adhd-diagnosis-large-scale-study-indicates/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Antidepressant use declines in adults after ADHD diagnosis, large-scale study indicates</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Aug 19th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A nationwide study from Finland provides evidence that adults diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often reduce their use of antidepressants after beginning treatment for ADHD. The findings, published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.70007" target="_blank">Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica</a></em>, suggest that properly identifying and addressing ADHD may lessen the need for other psychiatric medications—particularly in adults who had previously been treated for symptoms like depression or anxiety.</p>
<p>ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Although it’s often associated with children, it frequently persists into adulthood and may go unrecognized, especially when its symptoms overlap with mood disorders. Many adults with ADHD report long-standing difficulties in focus, task completion, or emotional regulation—challenges that may be misinterpreted as depression or anxiety.</p>
<p>Treatment for ADHD typically includes medication, such as stimulants like methylphenidate or amphetamines, and sometimes non-stimulant options like atomoxetine or guanfacine. These medications target core ADHD symptoms and can improve functioning across work, school, and relationships.</p>
<p>The research team noted that ADHD is often diagnosed after years of treatment for other psychiatric or physical symptoms. Because ADHD frequently co-occurs with depression and anxiety, it can be misdiagnosed or missed entirely. As a result, patients may receive antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications before the underlying ADHD is identified. The study aimed to investigate how treatment for ADHD affects the use of other medications—both psychiatric and non-psychiatric—and whether ADHD treatment leads to shifts in those patterns.</p>
<p>“There is active public discussion ongoing about the increase in ADHD diagnoses and the use of ADHD medication, especially in Finland. Here, on the other hand, we have excellent opportunities to conduct nationwide registry studies, so together with the study sponsor, Takeda, we decided to investigate this phenomenon. This is a large, comprehensive research project, and the first sub-study <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11743994/pdf/BRB3-15-e70253.pdf" target="_blank">has already been published</a> prior to the present article,” said study author <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/tuire-prami-bab6395/" target="_blank">Tuire Prami</a>, a senior scientist at <a href="https://www.oriola.com/" target="_blank">Oriola</a>.</p>
<p>“We wanted to further examine, in a population representing the entire country, how ADHD patients had been treated before being diagnosed with ADHD and what medications they used after the diagnosis. These findings were compared with those from control subjects.”</p>
<p>The study drew on several nationwide Finnish registers to identify people newly diagnosed with ADHD between 2015 and 2020. Researchers used prescription data, diagnostic codes, and special reimbursement records to confirm ADHD status. The study included both children and adults, but special attention was paid to adult cases due to their higher levels of comorbid psychiatric medication use.</p>
<p>For each ADHD patient, the researchers matched up to four control individuals without any ADHD diagnosis or treatment. These controls were selected to match the ADHD patients by age, sex, and region.</p>
<p>Medication data spanned from 2010 through the end of 2021. The team used this information to track purchases of both ADHD-specific drugs and other medications, such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs. They examined changes in purchasing patterns before and after the ADHD diagnosis and compared these changes between ADHD patients and their matched controls.</p>
<p>The study also measured adherence (whether patients filled their prescriptions) and persistence (how long they stayed on medication) for ADHD drugs. This helped the researchers understand not just whether people were prescribed ADHD medication, but whether they actually used it over time.</p>
<p>The researchers found that many adults with ADHD had been using antidepressants prior to being diagnosed. In these individuals, antidepressant use dropped significantly after they began ADHD treatment. This trend was not mirrored in the control group, who did not receive ADHD diagnoses, suggesting the decline was tied to the new ADHD-focused care.</p>
<p>The drop in antidepressant use may reflect that treating ADHD directly can reduce symptoms that were previously being managed with other psychiatric medications. In other words, some adults may have been treated for depression or anxiety when the root issue was undiagnosed ADHD. Once they began ADHD medication, their need for antidepressants may have diminished.</p>
<p>In children, the researchers observed a similar pattern with non-psychiatric medications. Prior to their ADHD diagnosis, children with ADHD were more likely than their peers to be prescribed antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and asthma medications. After starting ADHD treatment, the use of these medications declined more steeply in the ADHD group than among controls. The authors note that this finding might relate to ADHD’s known association with infections and allergies in early life, although the exact reasons remain uncertain.</p>
<p>“Children who were later diagnosed with ADHD used more antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs than controls, and after the initiation of ADHD treatment, their use of these drugs decreased more than in matched controls,” Prami told PsyPost. “This was surprising and cannot solely be explained by the age-related decrease in the need for antibiotics in children as the age-matched controls did not show similar decrease.”</p>
<p>High levels of medication adherence were observed across the ADHD group. About 95% of patients filled their ADHD prescription at some point, and 80% did so within 10 days. These figures indicate that once ADHD was diagnosed, most patients began treatment promptly.</p>
<p>However, persistence varied by age. The youngest children remained on ADHD medication the longest, while adolescents had the highest dropout rates. Among adolescents who started ADHD treatment, fewer than half were still on their medication a year later. Adults had somewhat better persistence than teens but still showed high rates of discontinuation.</p>
<p>Seasonal trends also appeared in the data. In school-aged children and teenagers, ADHD drug purchases dropped during the summer, likely reflecting planned medication breaks during school holidays.</p>
<p>Another finding involved the types of ADHD medications prescribed. Methylphenidate was the most common initial drug, with younger children more often receiving sustained-release versions and adolescents and adults more often receiving extended-release forms. Most patients remained on their first prescribed ADHD drug for several months, but some switched to different medications over time, such as lisdexamphetamine or atomoxetine. These changes likely reflect individual variation in medication response or side effects.</p>
<p>In terms of other medications, adults with ADHD were more likely to have been prescribed antiepileptics, antipsychotics, and sleep medications before their diagnosis. This pattern supports the idea that untreated ADHD may lead to a complex medication history as patients seek relief for related symptoms. Melatonin and acid reflux medications were also more common in ADHD patients, possibly reflecting the psychological and physical strain of living with undiagnosed ADHD.</p>
<p>“ADHD can be challenging to diagnose,” Prami said. “This is especially true in adults—where the diagnosis is already delayed—who may first receive treatment for symptoms or for another presumed condition, such as depression.”</p>
<p>“Once ADHD medication is prescribed, patients tend to be adherent in initiating the treatment. Among the youngest children, medication is continued for the longest duration. This result suggests that young patients to whom the medication has been prescribed have benefited from it, and the parents, as they are responsible for the administration, have been committed to the treatment. Adolescents aged 13–17, on the other hand, are the most likely to discontinue ADHD medication soon after starting it. Despite independent responsibilities in this age group, supporting both adolescent themselves and their families not only at initiation but during the medical treatment seems crucial.”</p>
<p>While the study does not prove that treating ADHD directly reduces the need for antidepressants, the observed pattern suggests that improved recognition and treatment of ADHD could streamline psychiatric care and reduce the need for multiple medications.</p>
<p>As with all registry-based studies, the researchers could only observe what was recorded in national databases. They did not have direct access to clinical interviews or symptom checklists, so the reasons behind changes in medication use remain speculative. The study also could not account for medications obtained without a prescription, such as over-the-counter melatonin or non-prescription antihistamines.</p>
<p>Still, the size and scope of the dataset allowed the researchers to spot population-level trends that may not be visible in smaller clinical studies. The findings raise questions about how often ADHD is misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed, particularly in adults.</p>
<p>“This is a very large-scale project for which we have collected extensive research data,” Prami said. “Next, we plan to publish results on comorbidities and causes of death among ADHD patients and controls. In addition to health information, data have also been collected on variables such as socioeconomic status, education, and criminality. Using these, our publication plan includes several more sub-studies. We are also open to hearing research ideas from outside our group.”</p>
<p>“Finland provides unique opportunities for conducting registry-based research, thanks to its comprehensive, high-quality nationwide health and population registries. Our research group’s diverse and solid expertise enables us to carry out large-scale projects using valuable databases.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.70007" target="_blank">Use of Antidepressants Decreased After Initiation of ADHD Treatment in Adults—A Finnish Nationwide Register Study Describing Use of ADHD and Non-ADHD Medication in People With and Without ADHD</a>,” was authored by Elisa Westman, Tuire Prami, Alvar Kallio, Ilona Iso-Mustajärvi, Joel Jukka, Paavo Raittinen, Maarit J. Korhonen, Anita Puustjärvi, and Sami Leppämäki.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-research-shows-the-weird-ways-zero-gravity-messes-with-your-body-awareness/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New research shows the weird ways zero gravity messes with your body awareness</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Aug 18th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-025-07090-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Experimental Brain Research</a> provides evidence that human position sense — our ability to detect where our limbs are without looking — is disrupted under conditions of altered gravity. But not all types of position sense appear to respond in the same way. Researchers found that weightlessness during parabolic flights affected some forms of proprioceptive judgment while leaving others relatively stable, suggesting that the nervous system may rely on more than one type of position sense.</p>
<p>Proprioception — sometimes called the “sixth sense” — is our internal sense of body position and movement. It plays a vital role in tasks like walking, reaching, or even just knowing where your arm is when your eyes are closed. This sense arises from signals sent by receptors in muscles and joints, along with input from the inner ear structures responsible for balance and acceleration.</p>
<p>Gravity is a constant force shaping our movement and posture on Earth. When gravity changes, as it does during parabolic flight (which briefly creates states of microgravity and hypergravity), the mechanical forces on joints and muscles change too. Prior studies have suggested that these changes can alter proprioceptive signals, but questions remain about which components of position sense are most sensitive to gravity shifts.</p>
<p>The new study led by Uwe Proske (emeritus professor of physiology at Monash University) and Bernhard Weber (senior researcher at the German Aerospace Center) set out to test whether different methods of measuring position sense — each thought to rely on slightly different mechanisms — are equally affected by gravity. By doing so, the researchers hoped to clarify the neural processes behind proprioception and shed light on how the brain constructs a sense of limb position under novel physical conditions.</p>
<p>“At one point or another, all of us have probably wondered: what would it be like to travel into outer space? That dream has come closer to reality in recent years, as space travel becomes commercialized. But, as is widely known, there are aspects of space travel that can be hazardous,” Proske and Weber told PsyPost.</p>
<p>“We’ve been studying people’s ability to know where their limbs are, even when they’re not looking at them. This is known as position sense, and it’s currently believed to be generated by sensors in our muscles called muscle spindles. We’ve identified different ways to measure position sense and categorized them into three main methods. The question we posed was whether all of these methods rely on signals from muscle spindles. We tested that idea in two ways. One approach involved altering the sensitivity of muscle spindles through muscle contraction or stretch to see whether that affected position sense. The other involved making measurements during parabolic flight.”</p>
<p>“That led us to conclude that muscle spindles don’t consistently play a major role across the different measurement methods,” the researcher continued. “It’s been known for some time that changes in gravity can interfere with muscle spindle responses. That observation led us to examine position sense during parabolic flight. During these maneuvers, gravitational force doubles during the initial climb, followed by a brief weightless phase as the aircraft traces a parabolic arc. When the plane descends and pulls up again, gravitational force doubles once more. We were especially interested in the drop in gravity, which resembles the conditions experienced in a space capsule.”</p>
<p>“We had read reports of astronauts waking up in the dark aboard a spacecraft and seeing what looks like a glowing dial floating in the air above them. Only after switching on a light do they realize it’s the face of their wristwatch — still on their own arm. In low gravity, without visual cues, they had completely lost awareness of their arm’s position. This kind of disorientation can become a problem for astronauts, especially when they’re required to operate complex machinery — sometimes without being able to see their hands.”</p>
<p>“When the chance came to take part in a series of parabolic flights, we decided to make measurements using all three position sense methods. We asked: are all three methods affected in the same way, or do they show measurable differences? We hoped that a deeper understanding of how position sense behaves in low-gravity environments might help us find ways to address the position sense issues reported by astronauts.”</p>
<p>The researchers used three commonly used methods to measure position sense: two-arm matching, one-arm pointing, and one-arm repositioning. Each method involves estimating the angle of an elbow joint without visual feedback, but they differ in how participants use memory, vision, and internal feedback.</p>
<p>Two-arm matching requires participants to align one arm with the other based solely on proprioception. One-arm pointing involves using one arm to point to where the hidden reference arm is believed to be. One-arm repositioning, in contrast, involves memorizing the angle of a moved arm and then trying to reproduce it later from memory.</p>
<p>The experiment took place during parabolic flights that produced short phases of microgravity (0G), hypergravity (1.8G), and normal gravity (1G). Twelve healthy adults completed position sense tasks during these different gravitational conditions while seated in a specially designed apparatus fixed inside an aircraft.</p>
<p>Each participant performed tasks using their dominant or non-dominant arm in a randomized design. To prevent visual cues, blindfolds or eye patches were used depending on the task. Participants were strapped into the setup for stabilization and guided through each trial using audio instructions.</p>
<p>Across the group, the researchers found a consistent pattern. When position sense was measured using two-arm matching or one-arm pointing, gravity had a noticeable effect. In hypergravity, errors increased: participants tended to overshoot, perceiving their arms as being more extended than they actually were. In microgravity, errors decreased — and in the case of two-arm matching, the decrease was statistically significant.</p>
<p>In contrast, one-arm repositioning errors remained largely unchanged across gravity conditions. Regardless of whether participants were in microgravity or hypergravity, their ability to reproduce a remembered elbow position did not differ significantly from their performance in normal gravity.</p>
<p>These results suggest that position sense, as measured by matching and pointing, is influenced by gravity. In these tasks, proprioceptive signals likely depend on inputs from sensors that are affected by joint torque, which changes with gravity. Repositioning, by contrast, appears to rely more on memory and central processing rather than ongoing signals from muscle receptors. This may explain its relative stability across gravity conditions.</p>
<p>“Interestingly, we found that two of the methods were significantly disrupted by the microgravity conditions likely to be experienced in a space capsule,” Proske and Weber said. “We assumed this was due to the known effect of low gravity on muscle spindle responses. But, as often happens in scientific research, we encountered one completely unexpected result. The third method of measuring position sense was entirely unaffected by changes in gravity!”</p>
<p>“After testing several different possibilities, we were ultimately led to the conclusion that this method is governed by memory mechanisms in the brain, completely independent of what the muscle spindles are doing. That’s a surprising conclusion. The currently accepted view is that position sense is generated by nerve signals from sensors in the body. That idea will have to be revised. We believe this finding may have broader implications for how we think about the brain’s role in shaping our sensory experiences.”</p>
<p>One limitation of the study is the relatively small sample size — a common constraint in parabolic flight research due to cost and logistics. In addition, while repositioning performance appeared stable, the researchers acknowledge that the task may still be influenced by central sensory processing that was not directly measured in this study.</p>
<p>Future research is planned to examine whether modifying joint torque artificially — for example, using elastic bands — could shift perceived position even in weightless conditions. Such manipulations might help further distinguish between the contributions of peripheral and central mechanisms in position sense. The researchers also raise broader questions about how the brain integrates peripheral sensory input with centrally stored spatial information.</p>
<p>“The bigger question we faced was: why do we have more than one type of position sense?” the researchers told PsyPost. “Right now, we don’t have a straightforward answer to that. When it comes to the loss of position sense reported by astronauts, we assume it involves situations where gravity changes disrupt the function of muscle spindles. But what exactly causes that disruption? In earlier work, we proposed that a key factor in generating position sense is the torque at the joint the limb moves around — in our case, the elbow.”</p>
<p>“In low gravity, torque is expected to decrease, and we hypothesized that this reduces the sensitivity of the muscle spindles, which in turn weakens position sense. If we’re right, then increasing torque at the elbow in low gravity could restore spindle sensitivity and help recover position sense. We’re suggesting that if astronauts wore elastic suits stiff enough to increase joint torque, it might help preserve their sense of limb position. That’s the direction our research is now heading.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-025-07090-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Disturbances in human position sense during alterations in gravity: a parabolic flight experiment</a>,” was authored by Bernhard M. Weber, Michael Panzirsch, Benedikt Pleintinger, Martin Stelzer, Stella Arand, Christian Schöttler, Ralph Bayer, Annette Hagengruber, and Uwe Proske.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-study-links-mindfulness-meditation-to-changes-in-brainwaves-tied-to-attention/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New study links mindfulness meditation to changes in brainwaves tied to attention</a>
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<p><p>A new study published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2025.113197" target="_blank">International Journal of Psychophysiology</a></em> has found that mindfulness meditation affects brain activity in ways that may reflect increased attentional engagement, rather than simple relaxation. Meditation led to reductions in alpha wave activity, a brain signal often tied to idling or disengagement. These reductions were especially apparent among participants who practiced meditation regularly over a six-week period.</p>
<p>Mindfulness meditation is a mental training practice that involves purposefully focusing attention on the present moment with an attitude of openness and non-judgment. A common technique involves anchoring attention to the breath. When thoughts or distractions arise, the goal is to notice them and gently return attention to breathing. This approach is rooted in contemplative traditions like Buddhism but has increasingly been incorporated into secular settings including psychotherapy, education, and health care.</p>
<p>The practice is often used to cultivate awareness, reduce reactivity to stressful thoughts and emotions, and improve cognitive flexibility. Over the past few decades, research has suggested that mindfulness meditation can contribute to reduced stress, improved emotional regulation, and enhanced well-being. However, the mechanisms behind these benefits remain the subject of ongoing investigation.</p>
<p>While many studies have linked mindfulness to improved health outcomes, there is ongoing debate about how it produces those changes in the brain and body. One candidate mechanism is arousal: meditation may reduce stress and bodily activation. Another possibility is that it enhances attention by training the brain to sustain focus and inhibit distraction. Both possibilities are supported by previous research, but findings have been inconsistent—particularly when it comes to brain activity in the alpha frequency range.</p>
<p>“There has been a considerable rise in the interest and use of mindfulness meditation, particularly for improving well-being. While the benefits are well documented, the mechanisms driving these benefits, especially how they relate to brain and autonomic activity, are only partially understood,” said study author Alexander T. Duda, a PhD Candidate at the Brain & Behaviour Research Institute and School of Psychology at the University of Wollongong.</p>
<p>Alpha waves (typically 8–13 Hz) tend to be strongest when a person is relaxed and has their eyes closed. They often decline when someone is mentally engaged. Some meditation studies have reported increases in alpha, which would suggest a calming effect, while others have found reductions, which might reflect attentional engagement. These inconsistencies may be due to different meditation styles or varying levels of experience among participants.</p>
<p>To better understand these patterns, the researchers used both EEG and skin conductance level (SCL), a measure of sympathetic nervous system activity often associated with arousal. If changes in alpha were tied to reduced arousal, one would expect corresponding changes in SCL. But if alpha reductions occurred without shifts in arousal, this would lend support to an attentional mechanism.</p>
<p>The researchers recruited 42 university students (average age around 21) who had minimal prior experience with meditation. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group engaged in 15 minutes of mindfulness meditation each day, while the other listened to classical music for the same amount of time. Both activities were practiced daily over a six-week period.</p>
<p>Before and after the six-week period, all participants came into the lab for two sessions. During each session, they completed periods of eyes-closed rest and a guided mindfulness meditation. EEG data were recorded to measure alpha wave activity, and SCL was measured through electrodes on the fingers to assess changes in bodily arousal. The study also included a trait mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) to assess any changes in self-reported mindfulness over time.</p>
<p>The main finding was a significant reduction in alpha activity during mindfulness meditation compared to eyes-closed rest. This pattern was consistent across participants and particularly noticeable in the frontal and posterior regions of the brain. These regions are often associated with attentional processes and emotion regulation. The alpha reductions were more pronounced on the right side of the brain, which some research has linked to emotional processing.</p>
<p>After six weeks, the group that practiced daily meditation showed a smaller reduction in alpha during meditation compared to their earlier session. This change may suggest that with continued practice, the brain becomes more accustomed to the demands of focused attention during meditation. Rather than reflecting a decrease in engagement, this smaller reduction might signal increased efficiency or familiarity with the mental task of mindfulness.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, SCL levels showed no significant difference between the resting and meditation states, either before or after training. This suggests that meditation did not reduce arousal in a meaningful way during the session. </p>
<p>There was, however, a general drop in SCL across both groups from the first session to the second. This decline may reflect a broader decrease in physiological arousal over time, perhaps due to consistent engagement in a calming daily activity. But since both the music and meditation groups showed this effect, it does not appear specific to mindfulness meditation.</p>
<p>Importantly, no correlation was found between alpha wave activity and SCL. In other words, reductions in brain alpha activity during meditation were not tied to changes in bodily arousal. This pattern suggests that the alpha changes are likely due to attention-related mechanisms rather than general relaxation.</p>
<p>“Although mindfulness meditation changed brain activity, these neural shifts were not strongly linked to changes in arousal,” Duda told PsyPost. “This suggests that some of meditation’s benefits may be driven more by attention-related processes than by simple relaxation.”</p>
<p>While many people view meditation as a tool to unwind, this study suggests it may actually place certain demands on the brain—particularly in areas involved in attention. The drop in alpha activity during meditation supports the idea that the brain is shifting from an idle, disengaged state to one of focused awareness. This shift seems to persist over time with practice, at least in modest ways.</p>
<p>The study also highlights the importance of distinguishing between different components of meditation. Not all benefits appear to stem from calming the body; some may arise from exercising and refining attentional control. This distinction may help explain why mindfulness has been linked to improved emotion regulation and cognitive performance, which require more than just physical relaxation.</p>
<p>“Mindfulness meditation can produce meaningful benefits, and these are accompanied by psychophysiological changes,” Duda said. “In this study, meditation altered brain alpha activity in ways that likely reflect improved attention, while arousal levels remained steady.”</p>
<p>One limitation of the study is its small, homogenous sample. Participants were young university students, most of whom had limited meditation experience. This may limit the generalizability of the findings to older adults or clinical populations. Future research should include more diverse samples to explore whether similar patterns occur across different demographics.</p>
<p>Looking forward, “we plan to examine how breathing exercises and specific elements of breath work interact with other aspects of mindfulness meditation to influence both brain and body,” Duda explained. “We have further research underway that builds on these results and will provide new insights into how mindfulness and breath-based practices affect the mind and body.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2025.113197" target="_blank">Mindfulness meditation alters alpha amplitude without affecting arousal</a>,” was authored by Alexander T. Duda, Adam R. Clarke, Robert J. Barry, and Frances M. De Blasio.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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