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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/almost-all-unmarried-pregant-women-say-that-the-fetus-resembles-the-father-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Almost all unmarried pregant women say that the fetus resembles the father, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 22nd 2025, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>A study asked expectant parents who they thought their fetus resembled during an ultrasound. Results showed that mothers, but not fathers, were more likely to say the fetus resembled the father. In the absence of any valid visual cues for establishing resemblance, 93% of women who were not married said that their fetus resembled the father, compared to 68% of married women and 47% of married men. The paper was published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106670"><em>Evolution and Human Behavior</em></a>.</p>
<p>Without dedicated medical tests, a man cannot be completely sure that he is the biological father of his partner’s child. This is known as paternity uncertainty, and it has been an important issue throughout human evolution. It remains a relevant topic even today. Unlike females, who can be certain of their biological connection to the child due to internal gestation, males face a degree of uncertainty because fertilization occurs internally.</p>
<p>This uncertainty may have shaped a number of male reproductive strategies and behaviors. Men may have evolved psychological mechanisms such as jealousy, mate guarding, and sexual possessiveness to reduce the risk of investing resources in offspring who are not biologically theirs.</p>
<p>Paternity uncertainty also helps explain cultural practices such as norms surrounding female chastity, strict mate surveillance, and patrilineal inheritance. It has been linked to increased paternal investment when resemblance to the father is emphasized. When paternity confidence is high, men are more likely to provide support, protection, and resources to their children.</p>
<p>In response to this dynamic, mothers may have developed a tendency to claim that their child resembles the father, even when no actual resemblance exists. Such a strategy could help reduce paternity uncertainty and secure paternal investment. Study author Carlota Batres and her colleagues sought to determine whether this tendency appears even before birth. Specifically, they investigated whether pregnant women, in the absence of visible traits like skin color or facial features, would still say that their fetus resembled the father.</p>
<p>Study participants included 190 expectant parents who visited an obstetrics and gynecology clinic, mostly during their routine 20-week pregnancy ultrasound. Their average age was 31 years. Eighty percent of the couples were married, while 20% were in a relationship.</p>
<p>Participants completed a questionnaire that asked them who they thought the fetus resembled. Response options included: “Mother,” “Father,” “A relative of the mother,” “A relative of the father,” and “Does not look like anyone.”</p>
<p>Among fathers, 49% said the fetus resembled themselves, while 51% said it resembled the mother. In contrast, only 26% of mothers said the fetus resembled themselves, while 74% said it resembled the father.</p>
<p>The researchers then analyzed responses by relationship status. Among married men, 47% said the fetus resembled themselves, compared to 58% of men in a relationship. Among married women, 69% said the fetus resembled the father, compared to 93% of women in a relationship who were not married.</p>
<p>“By claiming phenotypic similarity with the father, mothers are reducing paternity uncertainty and, consequently, securing investment for their offspring from when they are in utero,” the study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study sheds light on an interesting behavioral tendency with likely deep evolutionary roots. However, it should be noted that the data came from a small group of expectant parents from a single clinic and is based on responses to a single question. Studies on larger groups and those that phrase the question and response options differently, might not yield identical results.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106670">Investigating perceptions of fetal resemblance,</a>” was authored by Carlota Batres, Amy Mullen, Sonya Krofl, and Lauren Trainor.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-neuroscience-research-reveals-brain-antioxidant-deficit-in-depression/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New neuroscience research reveals brain antioxidant deficit in depression</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 22nd 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A new meta-analysis published in the journal <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-024-06735-1" target="_blank">Psychopharmacology</a></em> has found that individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder tend to have lower levels of glutathione in a specific area of the brain known as the occipital cortex. The findings add to growing evidence linking depression to oxidative stress and suggest that brain antioxidants could play a role in understanding or potentially treating the disorder.</p>
<p>Major depressive disorder is a widespread mental health condition affecting hundreds of millions of people globally. It is associated with a wide range of symptoms, including persistent sadness, fatigue, loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities, and impaired cognitive and physical functioning. </p>
<p>Scientists have long investigated possible biological contributors to depression, including changes in neurotransmitter systems and immune activity. One area of increasing interest is the role of oxidative stress, which occurs when the body’s production of reactive molecules outpaces its antioxidant defenses.</p>
<p>Glutathione is the most abundant antioxidant found in the brain. It plays a central role in protecting brain cells from oxidative damage by neutralizing harmful molecules known as free radicals. When the balance between oxidative molecules and antioxidants is disrupted, cells can become damaged, potentially leading to or worsening a variety of diseases—including neuropsychiatric conditions like depression. </p>
<p>Several studies have suggested that individuals with depression may have lower levels of glutathione in the blood or in post-mortem brain tissue, but until now, it was unclear whether these differences could also be observed in living people using brain imaging techniques.</p>
<p>To investigate this question, a team of researchers conducted a meta-analysis—a method that combines the results of multiple studies to produce a more comprehensive and statistically reliable estimate of an effect. In this case, the researchers searched three scientific databases for studies that used a brain imaging technique called proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure glutathione levels in people with depression and healthy individuals. </p>
<p>“The data out there on the role of oxidative stress in depression and other conditions is somewhat mixed, and the huge variety of modalities used to explore it means that it’s hard to see the wood for the trees. So in this study, we were keen to have a look at one particular modality – proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy – to see what the data showed,” said study author <a href="https://www.girton.cam.ac.uk/people/revd-dr-charlie-j-m-bell" target="_blank">Charlie Bell</a>, an honorary clinical lecturer at King’s College London and fellow in medicine at Girton College,</p>
<p>After screening a total of 178 publications, the researchers identified eight studies that met their inclusion criteria. These studies provided data from 230 people with major depressive disorder and 216 healthy controls. All participants had been assessed for depression based on widely used diagnostic systems, and studies had to provide enough data on glutathione levels to allow for statistical comparison.</p>
<p>The researchers focused on specific brain areas where at least three studies had been conducted: the occipital cortex and the medial frontal cortex. The occipital cortex is located at the back of the brain and is primarily involved in visual processing, while the medial frontal cortex is located near the front of the brain and is thought to play a role in emotion regulation and decision-making. Other brain areas were not included in the meta-analysis because too few studies were available for meaningful comparison.</p>
<p>The results showed that glutathione levels were lower in the occipital cortex of individuals with depression compared to healthy controls. The size of this difference was considered large by conventional standards. </p>
<p>In contrast, there were no significant differences in glutathione levels in the medial frontal cortex or when data from all brain areas were combined. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that the reduction in glutathione may be specific to the occipital region, at least based on current evidence. This regional difference is somewhat surprising, as most previous research has focused on the frontal areas of the brain in depression. </p>
<p>“As with so much in psychiatry, more work is needed,” Bell told PsyPost. “That said, we did see evidence that supported the role of oxidative stress in depression, and because of this, there may be stress-related pathways that we can target in the future, meaning new types of medication might be useful in major depression.”</p>
<p>The analysis did not find signs of publication bias, which increases confidence in the results. However, the authors acknowledged some limitations. First, the number of studies included was small, especially for brain regions outside of the occipital and medial frontal cortex. Some studies had to be excluded because they lacked necessary data or were available only in abstract form. </p>
<p>There was also variation in how glutathione was measured and analyzed across the studies. For example, some studies used different internal reference chemicals, which could influence the results.</p>
<p>“I was somewhat surprised by the sheer heterogeneity of the methodology used,” Bell said. “It’s hard to do useful comparisons when different groups use different experimental techniques or look at different regions of the brain.”</p>
<p>Another limitation was the lack of consistent data on clinical characteristics such as symptom severity, medication use, or comorbid conditions. These factors might affect glutathione levels but could not be examined in this meta-analysis. Additionally, the studies included participants with varying ages and durations of illness, which may contribute to differences in brain chemistry.</p>
<p>“There are really few studies available in this area, which is part of the reason our meta-analysis only gave a hint rather than anything definitive,” Bell explained.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the findings are consistent with the idea that oxidative stress is involved in depression and that glutathione plays an important role in brain health. The brain uses large amounts of oxygen and is particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage. If antioxidant defenses like glutathione are reduced, it could contribute to cellular stress and inflammation, which are increasingly recognized as factors in mental illness.</p>
<p>“It would be great to see groups really home in on specific brain regions and look at the role of oxidative stress in these – and it’s likely that there are a number of other conditions where a similar meta-analysis could yield results,” Bell said.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-024-06735-1" target="_blank">Glutathione alterations in depression: a meta-analysis and systematic review of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies</a>,” was authored by Charles J. M. Bell, Mitul Mehta, Luwaiza Mirza, Allan H. Young, and Katherine Beck.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/scientists-uncover-kidney-to-brain-route-for-parkinsons-related-protein-spread/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Scientists uncover kidney-to-brain route for Parkinson’s-related protein spread</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 22nd 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01866-2" target="_blank">Nature Neuroscience</a></em> has uncovered evidence that Parkinson’s disease and related conditions may start not in the brain, but in the kidneys. Researchers found that a key protein involved in the development of these diseases, called alpha-synuclein, can build up in the kidneys and travel to the brain through nerve pathways—especially when kidney function is impaired. The findings suggest that chronic kidney disease may increase the risk of Parkinson’s by allowing toxic protein deposits to accumulate and spread into the central nervous system.</p>
<p>Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder that affects movement, coordination, and a range of non-motor functions. The most recognizable symptoms include tremors, muscle rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability. These symptoms arise primarily because of the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in a brain region called the substantia nigra. Dopamine is a chemical messenger that plays a key role in motor control, and its depletion leads to the hallmark motor problems of the disease.</p>
<p>But Parkinson’s is not limited to movement difficulties. Many patients also experience mood disorders, cognitive decline, sleep disturbances, and digestive issues. One of the most puzzling aspects of the disease is that these non-motor symptoms often appear years before movement problems begin, hinting that the disease process may start outside the brain. Researchers have increasingly focused on alpha-synuclein, a protein that normally exists in neurons but can become misfolded and clump together into toxic aggregates. These protein clumps form structures called Lewy bodies, which are found in the brains of people with Parkinson’s and related disorders.</p>
<p>The idea that misfolded alpha-synuclein could spread from peripheral organs to the brain has gained traction over the past decade. For example, studies have shown that injecting these toxic protein aggregates into the gut of animals can lead to brain changes and movement impairments over time. The current study builds on that idea by turning attention to the kidneys, suggesting that they may be an overlooked origin point for this disease process—particularly in people with impaired kidney function.</p>
<p>The research team used a combination of human tissue samples and animal experiments. They examined kidney samples from patients with Parkinson’s disease or related disorders, as well as from people with end-stage kidney disease who had no known brain conditions. The researchers also used genetically modified mice, normal wild-type mice, and mice with kidney failure to test how alpha-synuclein behaves in the body under different conditions. In addition, they used surgical techniques and virus-based tracing to map nerve connections between the kidney and the brain.</p>
<p>In their analysis of human samples, the researchers found that misfolded and phosphorylated alpha-synuclein was present in the kidneys of 10 out of 11 people who had Parkinson’s or dementia with Lewy bodies. This abnormal protein was mostly seen in nerve fibers near small blood vessels. Importantly, similar protein deposits were found in the kidneys of 17 out of 20 patients with chronic kidney disease, even though they had no signs of Parkinson’s or other neurological disorders during life. In some of these patients, early-stage alpha-synuclein pathology was also found in the spinal cord, midbrain, or amygdala—areas affected in Parkinson’s disease. This suggests that kidney disease may quietly set the stage for later brain involvement.</p>
<p>In mice, the researchers demonstrated that the kidneys play an active role in clearing alpha-synuclein from the blood. When they injected alpha-synuclein into healthy mice, the protein quickly accumulated in the kidneys and then disappeared, indicating efficient clearance. But in mice with kidney failure, the protein stuck around longer in the blood and built up in the kidneys. This impaired clearance was also seen in experiments with rabbits and in lab tests using human kidney tissue. The team found that kidney enzymes called cathepsins are largely responsible for breaking down alpha-synuclein, and these enzymes don’t work as well when the kidneys are damaged.</p>
<p>The buildup of alpha-synuclein in the kidneys turned out to have dangerous consequences. When researchers injected toxic alpha-synuclein fibrils directly into the bloodstream of mice with kidney failure, they saw the protein spread not just in the kidneys, but into the brain and spinal cord. This led to the appearance of Parkinson’s-like pathology in brain regions involved in movement and memory. Mice developed a loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain’s substantia nigra and showed clear motor problems, such as poor balance and abnormal walking patterns. None of this occurred in mice with healthy kidneys injected with the same protein.</p>
<p>To investigate how the protein spread from the kidney to the brain, the researchers injected alpha-synuclein fibrils directly into the kidneys of genetically modified mice. Over the following months, they observed the protein moving along known nerve pathways from the kidney to the spinal cord and then into various brain regions. Using viral tracers and surgical denervation to disrupt these pathways, they confirmed that the kidney-to-brain spread depended on intact nerve connections. Mice whose kidney nerves were cut did not develop brain pathology even after receiving direct kidney injections of toxic alpha-synuclein.</p>
<p>The researchers also tested whether blood cells might be contributing to the problem. Most of the alpha-synuclein in the blood is found in red blood cells, and patients with kidney disease often have fragile or damaged red cells. To see if removing blood-derived alpha-synuclein could prevent disease, the researchers used bone marrow transplants to replace the blood cells of genetically modified mice with those from alpha-synuclein knockout mice. </p>
<p>The result was a sharp drop in alpha-synuclein levels in the blood—and a significant reduction in brain pathology. These mice also retained more dopamine neurons and had fewer motor symptoms. However, this protective effect was only seen when the mice were not exposed to external sources of toxic alpha-synuclein. Once the fibrils were introduced directly, the disease process resumed, even in mice without blood-derived alpha-synuclein.</p>
<p>The findings suggest that the kidney may act as a gateway organ in the development of Lewy body diseases like Parkinson’s. When the kidney is working properly, it clears alpha-synuclein from the blood before it can do harm. But when kidney function is impaired, the protein can build up, deposit in the kidney itself, and travel to the brain via nerve pathways. This could help explain why people with chronic kidney disease have a higher risk of Parkinson’s disease.</p>
<p>There are some limitations to the study. Although the researchers identified a strong link between kidney dysfunction and the spread of alpha-synuclein, it remains unclear whether this pathway plays a role in all cases of Parkinson’s disease. Not everyone with kidney disease develops Parkinson’s, and not all Parkinson’s cases begin with peripheral involvement. Additionally, while the findings in mice were convincing, human biology is more complex. More research is needed to understand how the kidney–brain pathway operates in living people over time and to identify other potential routes of protein spread.</p>
<p>Future studies may explore whether targeting peripheral alpha-synuclein could help prevent or delay Parkinson’s disease. For example, drugs that enhance the kidney’s ability to break down the protein or therapies that block its transmission along nerves might offer new treatment avenues. Though kidney denervation or bone marrow transplants are unlikely to be used clinically, antibody-based therapies that remove circulating alpha-synuclein could be a more practical strategy.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-024-01866-2" target="_blank">Propagation of pathologic α-synuclein from kidney to brain may contribute to Parkinson’s disease</a>,” was authored by Xin Yuan, Shuke Nie, Yingxu Yang, Congcong Liu, Danhao Xia, Lanxia Meng, Yue Xia, Hua Su, Chun Zhang, Lihong Bu, Min Deng, Keqiang Ye, Jing Xiong, Liam Chen, and Zhentao Zhang.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/scientists-reveal-a-surprising-link-between-depression-and-microbes-in-your-mouth/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Scientists reveal a surprising link between depression and microbes in your mouth</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 21st 2025, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the journal <em><a href="https://bmcoralhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12903-025-06274-x" target="_blank">BMC Oral Health</a></em> has uncovered a relationship between the diversity of bacteria in the mouth and symptoms of depression. Drawing from data on more than 15,000 adults in the United States, researchers found that people with lower oral microbiome diversity were more likely to experience depressive symptoms. This association was especially notable in men and non-Hispanic White individuals. The findings suggest that the oral microbiome might play a previously underappreciated role in mental health.</p>
<p>The human body is home to trillions of microorganisms—bacteria, fungi, viruses—that collectively make up what scientists call the microbiome. While much attention has been given to the gut microbiome’s influence on mood and behavior, the oral microbiome has received less focus. </p>
<p>The mouth is the gateway to the digestive system and hosts the second-largest microbial community in the body. These microbes are essential for maintaining balance in the immune system, helping prevent disease, and managing inflammation. Because of the oral microbiome’s importance in health and its interactions with the rest of the body, the researchers wanted to explore whether it might also relate to mental health, particularly depression.</p>
<p>To investigate this, the researchers used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a nationally representative survey conducted by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. They analyzed data collected between 2009 and 2012, focusing on 15,018 adults who had both oral microbiome and mental health data available. The participants had an average age of about 42 years and were racially and ethnically diverse.</p>
<p>To measure depressive symptoms, the researchers used a standard tool known as the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, or PHQ-9. This questionnaire asks participants how often they have experienced symptoms such as low mood, fatigue, or difficulty concentrating over the past two weeks. A score of 10 or higher is typically considered indicative of depression.</p>
<p>To assess oral microbiome diversity, participants provided oral rinse samples, which were then analyzed using a genetic technique that identifies bacterial types based on their DNA sequences. The researchers calculated two main types of diversity. Alpha diversity measures the richness and evenness of bacteria within a single person’s mouth. Beta diversity measures how similar or different one person’s oral microbiome is from another’s.</p>
<p>The study found a strong inverse association between alpha diversity and depression. In other words, people with a greater variety of bacterial species in their mouths were less likely to show signs of depression. This association remained even after adjusting for other factors that might influence both depression and oral microbiota, such as age, gender, race, smoking status, alcohol use, sleep problems, and physical health conditions like diabetes and hypertension.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the researchers also discovered a nonlinear relationship between microbiome diversity and depression. Specifically, increases in bacterial diversity were linked to a reduction in depression scores—but only up to a point. After reaching a certain threshold, additional increases in diversity were no longer associated with better mental health. This finding suggests there may be a “sweet spot” in oral microbial richness that supports mental well-being.</p>
<p>In addition to within-person diversity, the researchers also examined between-person variation in oral microbiomes. They found that people with depression had significantly different microbial communities compared to those without depression. These group-level differences were visualized using statistical techniques that cluster individuals based on the similarity of their microbiome profiles.</p>
<p>The relationship between depression and oral microbiome diversity was also shaped by certain behaviors and demographic characteristics. For instance, the negative association between bacterial diversity and depression was stronger among men and non-Hispanic White participants. Smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and recent oral treatment—such as deep cleaning for gum disease—also affected the strength of the relationship. These findings suggest that lifestyle and environmental factors may interact with microbial diversity in shaping mental health outcomes.</p>
<p>The study adds to a growing body of evidence linking microbial ecosystems in the human body to mental health. While gut bacteria have long been a focus of microbiome research, the oral microbiome is now emerging as an important player in its own right. </p>
<p>Several potential mechanisms could explain the observed connection. Oral bacteria may affect mental health by triggering inflammation or interacting with the immune system. Some species can travel to the gut and reshape its microbial landscape, which is known to influence brain chemistry and stress responses. Other bacteria may produce metabolites that impact neurotransmitter systems involved in mood regulation.</p>
<p>Another possibility is that the link runs in the other direction. People with depression may engage in behaviors—such as smoking, drinking, poor diet, or inadequate oral hygiene—that disrupt the balance of bacteria in the mouth. Depression is also associated with physical changes, like increased inflammation and altered immune function, which could affect the composition of the oral microbiome. Medications used to treat depression may also have effects, especially those that cause dry mouth, which can shift the oral environment and promote the growth of certain bacteria.</p>
<p>The researchers acknowledge several limitations to their study. Because the data were collected at a single point in time, it is not possible to say whether changes in oral microbiota lead to depression or vice versa. Longitudinal studies, which follow people over time, will be necessary to untangle cause from effect. The study also relied on self-report measures of depression symptoms rather than clinical diagnoses, and it could not account for all possible confounding factors. Additionally, while genetic sequencing identified broad patterns in bacterial diversity, it did not examine specific species or their functional roles.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study offers a valuable contribution to research on the microbiome and mental health. It is one of the first large-scale analyses to link oral microbiome diversity with depression in the general population. The results suggest that the mouth may be an important, and previously overlooked, frontier in understanding mental health.</p>
<p>“Having a better understanding of the relationship between the oral microbiome and depression could not only help us learn about the mechanisms underlying depression, but could contribute to the development of new biomarkers or treatments for mood disorders,” said Bei Wu, a vice dean for research at NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing and the senior author of the study</p>
<p>Wu also emphasized that this work is part of a broader effort to examine how the oral microbiome might affect other aspects of mental health, including cognitive decline and the risk of developing dementia. Future research will need to explore how different bacterial species interact with human biology, how lifestyle factors shape the oral microbiome, and whether interventions targeting oral health—such as improved hygiene, dietary changes, or probiotics—can support better mental health. </p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-025-06274-x" target="_blank">Relationship between depression and oral microbiome diversity: analysis of NHANES data (2009–2012)</a>,” was authored by Xichenhui Qiu, Ting Xu, Yiqing Huang, Changning Wei, Lina Wang, and Bei Wu.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-study-sheds-light-on-the-psychological-roots-of-collective-violence/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New study sheds light on the psychological roots of collective violence</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 21st 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>People who hold authoritarian or dominance-based ideological beliefs may be more likely to support certain forms of political violence—but which type depends on the belief. A new study published in <em><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2025-96190-001.html" target="_blank">Psychology of Violence</a></em> found that individuals in Lebanon with strong authoritarian attitudes were less likely to support violence against political leaders, while those with strong social dominance motives were more likely to support violence against outgroup members.</p>
<p>While many studies in political psychology have explored prejudice or discrimination, relatively few have focused on more extreme outcomes like collective violence. Much of the existing work has also been limited to populations in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Lebanon, with its history of civil war and complex sectarian system, provided a valuable setting to test whether ideological beliefs predict support for different types of political violence.</p>
<p>The research focused on two well-established ideological traits: right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. Right-wing authoritarianism refers to a tendency to value conformity, obedience to authority, and social order. People high in this trait often express hostility toward those seen as disrupting traditional norms. Social dominance orientation reflects a desire to maintain hierarchical group relationships, with one’s own group in a dominant position over others.</p>
<p>Building on recent research, the authors distinguished between two forms of collective violence. “Diffuse” violence refers to attacks against ordinary members of an outgroup. “Upward” violence targets the outgroup’s leaders or symbols of power. For example, vandalizing a statue of a political figure might be considered upward violence, while physically attacking members of a rival group would fall under diffuse violence.</p>
<p>“As a Lebanese political psychologist from the Middle East, I’ve long been interested in understanding what drives people to justify or support acts of collective violence, especially in politically fragile or polarized contexts,” said study author Ramzi Abou-Ismail, a senior fellow at the Center for Policy Action at the Lebanese American University. “This study emerged from that broader inquiry, focusing on how underlying ideological worldviews like authoritarianism and social dominance orientation shape the way people react to perceived group threats and societal change. Lebanon’s complex political reality was also a key contextual motivator for this research.”</p>
<p>To examine how these ideological traits predicted support for different forms of violence, the researchers surveyed two community samples in Lebanon. The first sample included 596 adults, and the second included 1,035. Participants came from various religious sects, including Christian Maronites, Sunni and Shia Muslims, Druze, and others. They responded to a series of statements using a five-point agreement scale. These statements measured their levels of authoritarianism, social dominance, and endorsement of collective violence.</p>
<p>In both studies, the researchers found that authoritarian beliefs were associated with reduced support for violence aimed at outgroup leaders. People who strongly valued authority and social order were less likely to view upward violence as acceptable. In contrast, social dominance orientation was positively associated with support for diffuse violence. People who endorsed hierarchical group structures were more likely to justify violence against outgroup members.</p>
<p>These results were consistent across both samples, though there were some nuanced differences between the studies. In the first study, which used less reliable scales for authoritarianism, the results were inconclusive regarding that trait’s relationship with diffuse violence.</p>
<p>The second study used improved measures and found a significant positive association between authoritarianism and support for violence against outgroup members. This supports the idea that authoritarians may approve of violence aimed at preserving social order and punishing perceived threats from ordinary outgroup members—while still opposing actions that disrupt authority structures.</p>
<p>The researchers also found a more complex pattern when it came to social dominance and support for upward violence. In the first study, people high in dominance orientation were somewhat less likely to support violence against outgroup leaders. In the second study, the relationship was not statistically significant. The authors suggest this inconsistency may stem from the ambiguous nature of dominance in Lebanon’s sectarian political system. When group status is unstable or unclear, the desire to dominate may lead to different responses depending on perceived threats or opportunities for power.</p>
<p>Overall, the findings support the idea that authoritarianism and social dominance are distinct belief systems with different implications for intergroup conflict. Authoritarianism tends to promote social conformity and obedience, which may lead to support for violence aimed at maintaining order—but not for actions that threaten leadership structures. Social dominance orientation, on the other hand, is more concerned with reinforcing power over other groups, which may include justification for aggression toward outgroup members.</p>
<p>“One striking finding was how differently these two constructs operated even when the outcome—support for collective violence—was the same,” Abou-Ismail told PsyPost. “We often assume that people who support violent action are cut from the same psychological cloth, but this research shows it’s more nuanced. Authoritarians may oppose some forms of violence if they disrupt order, while high-dominance individuals might support violence selectively, especially if it reinforces dominance.”</p>
<p>The study helps explain why some people may be more inclined to justify collective violence, depending on their ideological worldview and the perceived function of the violence. It also shows that people do not support all forms of violence equally, even when motivated by group-based animosity.</p>
<p>This research builds on prior work by showing that the psychological drivers of political violence vary depending on the target of the violence. By examining these distinctions in a high-conflict, non-Western context, the study offers a more globally relevant perspective on political behavior and intergroup aggression.</p>
<p>“The core takeaway is that not all support for violence comes from the same psychological place,” said Abou-Ismail. “People who score high in authoritarianism are more likely to support violence when they perceive a threat to social order or traditional values. Meanwhile, those high in social dominance orientation are more likely to justify violence that preserves group-based hierarchies and inequality. This means interventions to reduce violence need to be tailored to address these distinct motivations.”</p>
<p>The study has some limitations. “As with any cross-sectional survey, the findings point to associations, not causality. Additionally, our sample was drawn from a specific sociopolitical context, which may limit generalizability. Future research should explore how these dynamics play out across different societies and in experimental or longitudinal designs,” Abou-Ismail said.</p>
<p>“One of the goals of this research is to move beyond the ‘good versus bad people’ framing and instead understand the underlying belief systems that make some individuals more susceptible to supporting violent action in the name of group or state. By unpacking these motivations, we hope to inform both academic debates and practical strategies for violence prevention.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000580" target="_blank">Authoritarianism and Social Dominance as Differential Predictors of Individuals’ Support for Collective Violence</a>,” was authored by Ramzi Abou-Ismail, Aleksandra Cichocka, Joseph Phillips, and Nikhil K. Sengupta.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/experienced-fps-gamers-show-faster-more-efficient-eye-movements-during-aiming-tasks-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Experienced FPS gamers show faster, more efficient eye movements during aiming tasks, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 21st 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563225000202" target="_blank">Computers in Human Behavior</a></em> has found that experienced first-person shooter (FPS) players outperform non-gamers in aiming tasks due to more efficient eye movement patterns. Using eye-tracking technology, the researchers discovered that these gamers rely on quicker, more targeted visual strategies that likely support their rapid response and precise motor coordination. Their advantage appeared not in accuracy but in execution speed, especially when reacting under uncertain conditions.</p>
<p>First-person shooter games are a dominant force in competitive esports. In these games, players navigate virtual environments from the character’s point of view, aiming and shooting at targets that may appear suddenly and from any direction. Popular titles like Counter-Strike 2 and Call of Duty reward fast reflexes, precise targeting, and accurate hand-eye coordination. As professional esports continues to grow, there’s increasing interest in understanding the cognitive and perceptual skills that set expert players apart from casual gamers or non-players.</p>
<p>Previous studies have shown that FPS players tend to have stronger visual search abilities and better attentional control, but much of that research focused on general response times or broader visual skills. This new investigation went deeper by examining the fine-grained eye movement patterns that underlie aiming behavior. Specifically, the researchers wanted to know whether FPS players use different strategies to locate and target visual stimuli, especially under varying conditions of distance and timing. The study also explored how visual and motor responses work together, and whether these skills can be observed using a controlled version of an FPS task.</p>
<p>The research team recruited 63 participants—28 experienced FPS players and 35 individuals with no FPS experience. Experienced players had at least two years of regular gameplay and reported playing at least once per week. All participants were university students with normal or corrected vision. Using an eye-tracking device, the researchers recorded each person’s eye movements while they performed a simplified aiming task adapted from a popular Counter-Strike training map.</p>
<p>During each trial, participants first clicked a yellow target in the center of the screen. After a short delay—either 250 milliseconds or 500 milliseconds—a red target appeared at one of three distances (near, medium, or far) and at a randomly selected angle. Participants were instructed to hit the red target as quickly and accurately as possible using a computer mouse. The task was designed to mimic the “repeek” scenario common in FPS games, where an opponent briefly disappears behind cover and then reappears, requiring players to anticipate timing and respond with precision.</p>
<p>Each participant completed 72 randomized trials while their eye movements were tracked. The researchers analyzed both traditional performance metrics—like accuracy and reaction time—and detailed measures of eye behavior, including the number and duration of fixations and saccades (quick eye movements between points of focus).</p>
<p>The results revealed a consistent performance advantage for experienced FPS players, particularly in how quickly they completed each aiming task. Although there were no significant differences in accuracy between groups, the FPS players had significantly shorter execution times. This pattern held true across all target distances and both timing conditions, suggesting that their advantage was robust under varying levels of difficulty and temporal uncertainty.</p>
<p>What truly distinguished the experienced gamers was the efficiency of their eye movement patterns. They tended to complete aiming sequences with a single saccade and no fixation—a pattern the researchers called “0-fixation-1-saccade.” This was the most common strategy among experienced players and was observed in over 40% of their trials. In contrast, non-gamers more often used more complex patterns involving multiple fixations and saccades, indicating less efficient visual-motor coordination.</p>
<p>When a participant used a 1-fixation-2-saccades pattern, for example, it meant that their eyes initially overshot the target, then had to pause and make a corrective movement. These additional steps slowed down their responses. The 2-fixations-3-saccades pattern, even more common among non-FPS players, reflected an even less efficient strategy, with multiple corrections needed to land a hit. In essence, the more experienced a player was, the fewer corrections they needed—and the faster they could act.</p>
<p>These differences in visual behavior were also influenced by how far the target appeared from the center of vision. Targets placed farther from the middle of the screen were more difficult to hit quickly, likely because they fell outside the fovea—the central part of the retina responsible for sharp visual detail. Across all participants, greater target distances and longer target appearance delays led to slower execution times and more eye movements, consistent with the effects of visual difficulty and temporal unpredictability.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the study found that while participants initiated their eye movements slightly faster when targets appeared after a longer delay, this did not improve performance. In fact, the longer delay condition (500 milliseconds) was associated with lower accuracy and longer execution times. This suggests that increased temporal uncertainty may create pressure to act quickly but not always effectively, especially when players cannot predict exactly when a target will appear.</p>
<p>The researchers also explored how different spatial and temporal conditions interacted to shape performance. For example, near targets presented with short delays were hit more accurately and quickly than those at longer distances or with more unpredictable timing. This finding supports the idea that players perform best when both visual clarity and timing are favorable. In contrast, under challenging conditions—such as far targets with long delays—performance declined across all participants, though experienced FPS players still retained their execution speed advantage.</p>
<p>One of the most novel aspects of the study was its use of pattern-level eye movement analysis. Rather than relying only on averages, the researchers analyzed eye movement sequences from each individual trial. This approach provided a more nuanced picture of how visual and motor systems work together. For example, they showed that saccades—rather than fixations—appear to guide mouse movement in these tasks. In most cases, the final saccade before a shot corresponded directly to the path of the crosshair, suggesting that saccades serve as the key signal for motor planning in FPS-style aiming.</p>
<p>The study does have limitations. While the participants were categorized based on reported gaming experience, the sample did not include elite or professional esports players, who may exhibit even more refined visual-motor skills. The experimental task, although adapted from a real aiming map, did not include the full complexity of modern FPS games, such as distracting elements, varied environments, or moving targets. Future research could incorporate more realistic gaming scenarios and include mouse movement data to better capture the full dynamics of eye-hand coordination.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2025.108573" target="_blank">The aiming advantages in experienced first-person shooter gamers: Evidence from eye movement patterns</a>,” was authored by Liu Yang, Wenmao Zhang, Peitao Li, Hongjie Tang, Shuying Chen, and Xinhong Jin.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/study-links-moderate-awe-in-psychedelic-ayahuasca-journeys-to-better-well-being/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Study links moderate awe in psychedelic ayahuasca journeys to better well-being</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Jun 21st 2025, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02791072.2025.2491378" target="_blank">Journal of Psychoactive Drugs</a></em> challenges common assumptions about the role of awe in psychedelic experiences. While awe is often viewed as a positive and transformative emotion, researchers found that when it came to ayahuasca retreat participants, experiencing intense awe—especially the kind characterized by a sense of vastness—was not necessarily linked to better well-being. </p>
<p>Instead, people who reported mystical experiences involving lower levels of perceived vastness were more likely to report higher well-being. The findings suggest that there may be an optimal “dose” of vastness during psychedelic journeys, and too much of it might overwhelm rather than heal.</p>
<p>Psychedelic substances like ayahuasca have received growing attention for their potential to support mental health. These effects are often linked to deep emotional and spiritual experiences, sometimes referred to as “mystical” in nature. Previous studies have suggested that these mystical experiences, and the feelings of awe they often evoke, are central to the benefits people report. But the new research complicates this picture, showing that not all awe is beneficial—at least not in the same way, or to the same extent.</p>
<p>Ayahuasca is a traditional Amazonian brew made from the vine <em>Banisteriopsis caapi</em> and the leaves of <em>Psychotria viridis</em>. The drink contains dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a powerful psychedelic compound, and is used in ceremonial contexts among Indigenous peoples in South America. In recent decades, it has become popular in Western countries for its reported psychological and spiritual benefits. </p>
<p>Participants often attend multi-day retreats guided by shamans or facilitators, where ayahuasca is consumed in controlled and ritualized settings. Many people describe their experiences as deeply meaningful, involving shifts in their sense of self, vivid visions, and an overwhelming sense of connection or insight.</p>
<p>The research team behind the new study has previously investigated awe in a variety of contexts. They were interested in exploring how awe functions in psychedelic settings, particularly with a substance like ayahuasca that is known for producing intense emotional and perceptual effects. </p>
<p>Awe is often described as a self-transcendent emotion triggered by encounters with vastness—something so large or powerful it challenges the way we see ourselves or the world. While awe has been associated with benefits like increased life satisfaction, reduced stress, and greater social connectedness, it can also be overwhelming and even frightening when the experience feels too vast to mentally process.</p>
<p>“As a research team, we have been interested in the experience of awe and its potentially profound effect on people, including on their well-being, beliefs about themselves and the world we live in, and the memorability of the experience itself,” said study author <a href="https://www.usc.edu.au/staff/dr-lee-kannis-dymand" target="_blank">Lee Kannis-Dymand</a>, a senior lecturer in clinical psychology at the University of the Sunshine Coast and co-author of <em>How to Deal with Anxiety</em>.</p>
<p>“We have looked at the experience of awe in a range of contexts, including nature, adventure tourism (whale watching and swimming), gaming, and now psychedelics. Many of our research projects are enthusiastically conducted by our psychology masters students including this one, by Brant Maclean.”</p>
<p>To study this, researchers recruited participants who had attended at least one ayahuasca retreat in a country where the use of ayahuasca is legal or approved, such as in parts of South America and Europe. They initially gathered responses from 640 people, but due to issues like incomplete answers, potentially AI-generated responses, or attendance at retreats in countries where ayahuasca is illegal, the final sample included 60 adults. The majority were from the United States or Europe, with an average age of about 35. Half identified as male and nearly half as female.</p>
<p>Participants answered a series of questions about their most recent retreat experience, including how many times they consumed ayahuasca, how long it had been since the retreat, and how many retreats they had attended in total. They also completed several validated psychological questionnaires measuring their well-being, the intensity of their mystical experience, and their feelings of awe during the retreat. The awe measures focused on two key components: “perceived vastness” and the “need for accommodation,” or the sense that one’s understanding of the world is being challenged and must be adjusted.</p>
<p>The researchers initially expected that higher levels of awe would be associated with greater well-being. They also predicted that mystical experiences characterized by awe would offer the strongest benefits. But neither prediction was supported.</p>
<p>In fact, the results suggested a more complex pattern. While mystical experiences were generally linked to feelings of awe, only those that involved moderate or lower levels of perceived vastness were significantly associated with higher well-being. By contrast, mystical experiences that were paired with very high levels of vastness—what the researchers described as <em>superfluous vastness</em>—were linked to lower well-being. </p>
<p>This suggests that there may be a “sweet spot” in the emotional intensity of these experiences, where the vastness feels expansive and humbling but not overwhelming or destabilizing. The researchers referred to this as <em>sufficient vastness</em>—a level of vastness that promotes insight and reflection without tipping into psychological overload.</p>
<p>“In this study, we were interested in the role of awe in people who attend ayahuasca retreats,” Kannis-Dymand told PsyPost. “What we found was that the perception of something being vast, a component of awe, was associated with psychedelic-related mystical experiences that resulted in higher well-being outcomes than in those who did not experience awe-related vastness.”</p>
<p>Interestingly, one specific item in the vastness questionnaire—“I felt meaningless in front of what I saw during the psychedelic experience”—was positively associated with well-being. This indicates that confronting a sense of insignificance can, paradoxically, be beneficial, possibly by encouraging meaning-making or a reevaluation of one’s place in the world. But not all forms of vastness seem to have this effect. Other aspects—such as feeling diminished or engulfed—may push the experience into territory that is too intense to be integrated, potentially reducing its positive impact.</p>
<p>The researchers offered several possible interpretations for these findings. One is that awe, when it crosses a certain threshold, may begin to feel threatening or disorienting rather than enlightening. This aligns with previous research showing that awe can evoke fear or distress when the experience becomes too large to process or is perceived as incomprehensible.</p>
<p>In psychedelic contexts, this might happen when someone is confronted with imagery, emotions, or sensations that feel so massive or alien that they overwhelm the person’s psychological defenses. When the experience exceeds the individual’s capacity to make sense of it—either during the session or in the days and weeks that follow—it may lead to confusion or emotional turmoil rather than insight. On the other hand, mystical experiences that are intense but still within the bounds of “sufficient vastness” may create space for personal growth, emotional release, and lasting psychological benefit.</p>
<p>Another possibility is that the effects of awe and mystical experience depend heavily on context, preparation, and individual readiness. The study found that participants who had more recently attended a retreat reported higher well-being, suggesting that the benefits may fade over time. In addition, people who had attended more retreats or consumed ayahuasca more frequently tended to report less intense awe. This may reflect a kind of emotional acclimation—where the novelty and intensity of the experience diminish with repeated exposure, making extreme reactions like superfluous vastness less likely.</p>
<p>“Ayahuasca can have transformational and beneficial effects on people,” Kannis-Dymand said. “However, it is essential to go to a reputable retreat that offers ayahuasca within a traditional, cultural setting with appropriate onsite support.”</p>
<p>There were also notable demographic patterns. Younger participants tended to report higher well-being and more frequent ayahuasca consumption during their most recent retreat. Older individuals had attended more total retreats but did not show the same level of well-being. Gender differences also emerged, with males attending more retreats overall and females consuming ayahuasca more times during a single retreat. However, these differences did not seem to directly influence well-being.</p>
<p>As with all research, there are limitations. The sample size was small, and participants were drawn only from countries where ayahuasca is legally sanctioned in retreat settings. This limits the ability to generalize the findings to broader populations, especially in countries where use remains illegal or unregulated. The researchers also did not collect pre- and post-retreat data on well-being, so it’s unclear how much change occurred as a result of the experience.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study offers a new perspective on how awe functions in psychedelic settings. Rather than assuming that more awe is always better, the findings suggest that the emotional qualities of the experience—how vast, overwhelming, or manageable it feels—play an important role in determining outcomes. </p>
<p>The researchers propose that future studies explore how to shape or support mystical experiences in a way that maintains their transformative power without becoming too overwhelming. This could be especially relevant for retreat facilitators and clinicians who aim to create safe and supportive environments for psychedelic healing.</p>
<p>“We recently published a psychological model of awe and continue to conduct research to explore awe in a range of settings and build empirical evidence for our proposed model,” Kannis-Dymand added. “We encourage people to seek time in nature or in anything that evokes awe in them as we know awe is a buffer against negative mental health, that it promotes a sense of connection to others and our environment, and can foster positive beliefs.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2025.2491378" target="_blank">Ayahuasca Retreats: The Role of Awe and Mystical Experiences in Well-Being</a>,” was authored by Brant Maclean, Amy Wilson, Andrew Allen, Vikki Schaffer, and Lee Kannis-Dymand.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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