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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/childhood-emotional-abuse-linked-to-more-frequent-nightmares-in-young-adults/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Childhood emotional abuse linked to more frequent nightmares in young adults</a>
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<p><p>A study of young adults in China found that experiences of emotional abuse and neglect during childhood are associated with a higher frequency of nightmares and bad dreams. The analysis suggested that rumination may play a mediating role in this relationship, while perceived social support can moderate the strength of the link. The paper was published in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2024-69053-001?doi=1"><em>Dreaming</em></a>.</p>
<p>Emotional abuse refers to behaviors that harm an individual’s self-worth or emotional well-being, including verbal attacks, humiliation, intimidation, or persistent criticism. It often occurs in close relationships and can be subtle, making it difficult to recognize. Emotional neglect, in contrast, involves the failure to provide emotional support, affection, and attention, which can leave a person feeling unimportant or unloved.</p>
<p>Both emotional abuse and neglect can have long-lasting psychological effects. Victims may struggle with anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and difficulties in forming healthy relationships. Unlike physical abuse, emotional maltreatment leaves no visible marks, but it can profoundly impact a person’s identity and sense of security. Prolonged exposure to emotional trauma may even alter brain development and increase vulnerability to mental health disorders.</p>
<p>The study, led by Bingbing Lin and colleagues, aimed to investigate how emotional abuse and neglect relate to the frequency of disturbed dreams. Disturbed dreams include both nightmares, which wake the sleeper, and bad dreams, which do not cause awakening but still evoke negative emotions.</p>
<p>Participants included 847 students from two universities in the Chinese provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Of these, 365 were male. Ages ranged from 17 to 22 years, with an average age of 19.</p>
<p>Participants completed standardized assessments measuring childhood trauma (using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), rumination (via the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire), perceived social support (using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support), and the frequency of disturbed dreaming.</p>
<p>Results showed that 28% of participants reported no disturbed dreaming in the past year. Around 31% had disturbed dreams less than once a month, and 23% experienced such dreams one to two times per month. Notably, 2% reported having disturbed dreams every night.</p>
<p>Those who reported more severe experiences of emotional abuse and neglect also reported more frequent disturbed dreaming. These individuals were also more likely to engage in rumination and to report lower levels of perceived social support. The researchers tested a statistical model proposing that childhood emotional abuse and neglect increase rumination, which in turn contributes to more frequent disturbed dreaming. The results supported this proposed pathway.</p>
<p>Further analysis revealed that perceived social support moderated the relationship between rumination and disturbed dreaming. Specifically, individuals with low levels of perceived social support showed a stronger association between rumination and disturbed dreaming. In contrast, for individuals with high perceived social support, the link between rumination and dream disturbance was weaker or non-significant.</p>
<p>“Emotional abuse and neglect positively predicted the disturbed dreaming frequency. Rumination played a mediating role between emotional abuse and neglect and disturbed dreaming frequency. Emotional abuse and neglect positively predicted rumination and rumination positively predicted disturbed dreaming frequency. Perceived social support played a moderating role between rumination and disturbed dreaming frequency. As the level of perceived social support increased, the positive prediction effect of rumination on disturbed dreaming frequency gradually weakened,” the study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between childhood experiences and dreaming. However, it should be noted that the design of the study does not allow any causal inferences to be derived from the results.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000270">The Effect of Childhood Emotional Abuse and Neglect on Disturbed Dreaming Frequency: The Important Role of Rumination and Perceived Social Support,</a>” was authored by Bingbing Lin, Ziqing Ye, Yiduo Ye, Kunyan Wang, and Yuanjun Zhang.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/how-much-sleep-do-you-really-need-it-appears-to-depend-on-your-culture/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">How much sleep do you really need? It appears to depend on your culture</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">May 26th 2025, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>New research published in the <em><a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2419269122" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></em> raises questions about the common belief that everyone needs the same amount of sleep to stay healthy. By analyzing sleep and health data from thousands of people across multiple countries, the researchers found that the amount of sleep linked to better health varied between cultures. The findings suggest that people might be healthier when their sleep patterns align with the expectations and norms of their cultural environment—even if those norms differ across societies.</p>
<p>The research team, led by Steven Heine at the University of British Columbia, was motivated by a long-standing question: Why do people in different countries sleep so differently, and what does that mean for their health? While many sleep guidelines recommend a standard eight hours of sleep per night, cross-national studies consistently show that average sleep duration varies dramatically.</p>
<p>“I’ve lived in Japan for several years and it was always striking how little people seemed to be sleeping there. On the other hand, Japan has the longest average lifespan in the world, so it seemed surprising that they didn’t seem to be suffering from their short sleep durations,” explained Heine, a professor of social and cultural psychology at the University of British Columbia and author of <em><a href="https://amzn.to/43eRqV9" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Start Making Sense</a></em>.</p>
<p>To explore this puzzle, the researchers conducted two separate investigations. The first study analyzed national averages of sleep duration from 14 previous cross-cultural studies. These studies used a variety of methods, from sleep-tracking apps to national surveys, and included data from over 70 countries. In total, the researchers gathered 353 national sleep averages, which were then compared with national health statistics, such as rates of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and life expectancy.</p>
<p>Importantly, the researchers accounted for other factors that might affect health outcomes, including national wealth, income inequality, nutritional status, and a country’s latitude. These controls allowed them to test whether sleep duration itself could predict health outcomes at the national level.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, they found that average national sleep duration was not a reliable predictor of health. Countries with shorter average sleep times, like Japan, did not have higher rates of heart disease or lower life expectancy than countries where people sleep longer. In fact, longer sleep durations were associated with higher national obesity rates—a result that runs counter to what studies within individual countries have typically shown.</p>
<p>These findings raised the possibility that relationships between sleep and health might look different when zooming out to the national level. To test this further, the researchers designed a second study that focused on individual-level data collected across 20 countries. They surveyed nearly 5,000 adults between the ages of 25 and 60 about their sleep patterns, physical and mental health, and their perceptions of what constitutes an ideal amount of sleep in their culture. The survey was conducted during the week of the autumnal equinox to help control for daylight variation.</p>
<p>Participants were asked both how long they slept the night before and how much they typically sleep each day, including naps. They also reported on a range of health indicators, including body mass index, depression, chronic health conditions, and overall well-being. The survey also included several control variables such as age, gender, income, smoking, drinking, and the latitude of each participant’s location.</p>
<p>The researchers found that individual sleep duration was positively associated with better health. People who reported sleeping longer the night before tended to have fewer chronic health conditions, better mental health, and lower levels of depression. However, there was a turning point: too much sleep was also linked to worse health, creating a U-shaped curve. This pattern was consistent with earlier studies showing that both short and long sleep durations can be linked to negative health outcomes.</p>
<p>The amount of sleep associated with optimal health varied across countries. In each of the 20 countries studied, the optimal sleep duration—that is, the point on the curve where health was best—was different. These turning points were always higher than the average sleep duration reported in each country, suggesting that most people sleep less than what would be ideal for their health. But the “ideal” varied from place to place, supporting the idea that sleep needs are not fixed across cultures.</p>
<p>Another key finding was that people who slept closer to what they believed was their culture’s ideal sleep duration tended to report better health. This idea, known as cultural fit, suggests that aligning with local norms—even for something as private as sleep—may offer psychological or physiological benefits. It is possible that people feel healthier when they believe they are behaving in socially appropriate ways, or that being out of sync with social routines, such as public transportation schedules or work start times, creates stress that impacts health.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the researchers did not find that country-level sleep averages predicted better or worse individual health. This finding, which mirrors the results of the first study, challenges the assumption that countries with shorter average sleep durations must be less healthy. It also highlights the risks of drawing conclusions from national averages—what holds true for individuals within a country may not hold true between countries, a concept known as the ecological fallacy.</p>
<p>The findings provide evidence that “the amount of sleep that is associated with good health varies substantially across cultures,” Heine told PsyPost. “People who sleep closer to their own cultural norms tend to have better health. We were expecting these findings, given some of our previous research, but we were still struck by just how much variation there is in sleep duration. In our sample, French people slept more than an hour and a half longer than Japanese people.”</p>
<p>Although the study provides new insights into how culture shapes sleep and health, it comes with limitations. Most of the data on sleep and health were self-reported, which can be influenced by social desirability or cultural expectations. People may also misreport their sleep habits, particularly in countries where long sleep is frowned upon. And while they controlled for several key variables, it’s likely that many other cultural and environmental factors influence both sleep and health in ways that were not captured by the study.</p>
<p>Looking ahead, the researchers hope to better understand how cultural practices affect not just how long people sleep, but how they sleep. They are particularly interested in whether different cultural patterns are associated with different distributions of sleep stages, such as deep sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, which could help explain how people maintain health with varying amounts of sleep.</p>
<p>“If Japanese can get enough sleep despite sleeping 90 minutes less than the French, then this suggests that they must spend different amounts of time in the different stages of sleep,” Heine said. “We’re hoping to be able to compare how the sleep cycle through the various stages of sleep are shaped by culture.”</p>
<p>“I find it curious that people are affected by their cultural norms for sleep because sleep is a relatively private aspect of our lives. Perhaps we learn our cultural norms from how society is structured, such as when offices are open and when public transit starts.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419269122" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Healthy sleep durations appear to vary across cultures</a>,” was authored by Christine Ou, Nigel Mantou Lou, Charul Maheshka, Marc Shi, Kosuke Takemura, Benjamin Cheung, and Steven J. Heine.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/ultra-processed-foods-linked-to-higher-risk-of-stroke-and-cognitive-decline/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Ultra-processed foods linked to higher risk of stroke and cognitive decline</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">May 26th 2025, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A large new study suggests that diets high in ultra-processed foods are linked to increased risk of stroke and cognitive impairment in adults, independent of overall diet quality. The findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000209432"><em>Neurology</em></a>, are based on data from over 30,000 participants in the United States and indicate that food processing itself may play an important role in brain health, beyond traditional measures of nutritional quality.</p>
<p>Ultra-processed foods make up the majority of calories consumed in the United States. These foods are often manufactured with ingredients not typically used in home cooking—such as emulsifiers, artificial flavors, and stabilizers—and are designed to be hyper-palatable and convenient. Examples include packaged snacks, sweetened beverages, processed meats, and ready-to-eat meals.</p>
<p>Past research has linked high intake of these foods to metabolic and cardiovascular problems like obesity, hypertension, and heart disease. Some studies have also suggested connections to poorer brain health, but it remained unclear whether these links were simply due to poor overall diet quality or whether the processing itself might be harmful.</p>
<p>To address this question, researchers analyzed whether ultra-processed food consumption predicted risk of stroke or cognitive decline independently of adherence to three well-established healthy eating patterns: the Mediterranean diet, the DASH diet, and the MIND diet.</p>
<p>“My research group has been interested in studying risk factors for stroke and cognitive impairment, including biomarkers that can be measured years in advance and predict subsequent neurologic disease,” said study author <a href="https://kimberlylab.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">W. Taylor Kimberly</a>, chief of the Division of Neurocritical Care at Mass General Hospital and an associate professor of neurology at Harvard Medical School.</p>
<p>“As part of that work, we identified new biomarkers of stroke, but the markers were independent of the usual risk factors such as high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, and high cholesterol. That got us thinking about what these markers might be a reflection of. As we considered a variety of potential factors, we found that diet was by far the strongest. As we studied the role of diet and brain health in more detail, we then recognized that the degree of food processing was an independent predictor of stroke and cognitive impairment.”</p>
<p>The study was part of <a href="https://www.uab.edu/soph/regardsstudy/">the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) project</a>, a long-term observational study designed to investigate why stroke rates are higher in some parts of the United States. It includes a diverse sample of Black and White adults aged 45 and older who were enrolled between 2003 and 2007.</p>
<p>Participants provided detailed dietary information using a standardized food frequency questionnaire. Foods were categorized using the NOVA classification system, which groups items by level of processing. The researchers focused on NOVA1 (unprocessed or minimally processed foods) and NOVA4 (ultra-processed foods), analyzing their intake as a percentage of total daily food weight.</p>
<p>Separate groups were followed over time for the development of cognitive impairment or stroke. The cognitive impairment cohort included 14,175 people who had no evidence of cognitive issues at the start of the study and who completed follow-up cognitive testing. The stroke cohort included 20,243 participants without a prior history of stroke.</p>
<p>The research team used statistical models that accounted for a wide range of variables—including age, sex, race, income, education, blood pressure, diabetes, physical activity, depression, alcohol use, and more—to isolate the relationship between food processing and neurological outcomes. They also accounted for adherence to the Mediterranean, DASH, and MIND diets to see whether the level of food processing added predictive value beyond traditional dietary patterns.</p>
<p>People who consumed more ultra-processed foods had higher rates of both stroke and cognitive impairment during the study period. For every 10% increase in the proportion of ultra-processed food in the diet (by weight), there was a 16% higher risk of cognitive impairment and an 8% higher risk of stroke, even after controlling for other health and lifestyle factors.</p>
<p>In contrast, a higher proportion of unprocessed or minimally processed foods was associated with lower risk: a 12% reduction in stroke risk and a similar reduction in the likelihood of cognitive impairment.</p>
<p>“Even relatively small differences in the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) were associated with a differing risk to one’s brain health,” Kimberly told PsyPost. “In other words, swapping one or two meals each week from a UPF meal into less processed foods can have a substantive change in risk of stroke and cognitive impairment. This is encouraging because these types of changes sound achievable, and that it could modify one’s brain health in the long term.”</p>
<p>Importantly, these associations were not explained away by the participants’ overall adherence to healthy diets. Even among people who followed the Mediterranean, DASH, or MIND diets, eating more ultra-processed foods was still linked to poorer outcomes. Adding ultra-processed food intake to models that already included these diet scores significantly improved the ability to predict who would go on to experience stroke or cognitive decline.</p>
<p>The study also revealed that the negative impact of ultra-processed foods on stroke risk was greater for Black participants than for White participants, though no such racial difference was observed for cognitive outcomes.</p>
<p>“Prior studies had shown that diet patterns are important for maintaining good brain health (e.g., eating fruits, vegetables, whole grains, etc),” Kimberly explained. “Our study adds to that knowledge by reporting that the degree of food processing is also important. It’s not just what type of food you eat, but how it’s processed and prepared that also matters.”</p>
<p>The findings could help refine public health recommendations and food policy. While the Mediterranean, DASH, and MIND diets remain effective strategies for supporting long-term brain health, the results suggest that reducing ultra-processed food intake may provide additional protection—even for those who already follow a healthy diet.</p>
<p>While the study’s design is robust and includes a large, diverse sample with long-term follow-up, it does have limitations. Because it is observational, it cannot prove that ultra-processed foods cause cognitive decline or stroke. There may be unmeasured factors that explain the relationship. “While we can show there is a strong and consistent association between ultra-processed food intake and brain health, our study does not prove causation.”</p>
<p>In addition, dietary intake was self-reported, which can introduce inaccuracies, and the classification of foods by processing level (using the NOVA system) has been criticized for being too broad or imprecise in some cases. The researchers also noted that results differed depending on whether they analyzed food intake by weight or by calories, highlighting the need for standardization in future research.</p>
<p>“We’re now studying whether participants who had a change in their diet over the observation period also had a change in their risk of subsequent cognitive impairment,” Kimberly said. “Although this is not the same as running a randomized clinical trial, it builds further evidence to suggest that changing one’s diet is associated with a change in risk for subsequent brain health outcomes.”</p>
<p>“Long term, we hope to define which types of ultra-processed foods are associated with the greatest risk. Ultra-processed foods have some notable advantages—convenience, shelf life—and it’s likely that not all ultra-processed foods confer the same risk. The next step is to figure that out, which will allow policy makers to make informed decisions in the future about our food supply.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000209432">Associations Between Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Adverse Brain Health Outcomes</a>,” was authored by Varun M. Bhave, Carol R. Oladele, Zsuzsanna Ament, Naruchorn Kijpaisalratana, Alana C. Jones, Catharine A. Couch, Amit Patki, Ana-Lucia Garcia Guarniz, Aleena Bennett, Michael Crowe, Marguerite R. Irvin, and W. Taylor Kimberly.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/a-common-childhood-virus-could-be-silently-fueling-alzheimers-disease-in-old-age/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">A common childhood virus could be silently fueling Alzheimer’s disease in old age</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">May 25th 2025, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>The common cold sore virus, which is often caught in childhood, usually stays in the body for life – quietly <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/herpes-simplex-virus">dormant</a> in the nerves. Now and then, things like stress, illness or injury can trigger it, bringing on a cold sore in some people. But this same virus – called herpes simplex virus type 1 – may also play an important role in something far more serious: Alzheimer’s disease.</p>
<p>Over 30 years ago, my colleagues and I made a <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(96)10149-5/abstract">surprising discovery</a>. We found that this cold sore virus can be present in the brains of older people. It was the first clear sign that a virus could be quietly living in the brain, which was long thought to be completely germ-free – protected by the so-called “blood-brain barrier”.</p>
<p>Then we discovered something even more striking. People who have a certain version of a gene (called APOE-e4) that increases their risk of Alzheimer’s, and who have been infected with this virus, have a risk that is <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(96)10149-5/abstract">many times greater</a>.</p>
<p>To investigate further, we studied brain cells that we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304394007010786?via%3Dihub">infected with the virus</a>. They produced the same abnormal proteins (amyloid and tau) found in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s.</p>
<p>We believe that the virus stays mainly dormant in the body for years – possibly decades. But later in life, as the immune system gets weaker, it can enter the brain and reactivate there. When it does, it will damage brain cells and trigger inflammation. Over time, repeated flare-ups could gradually cause the kind of damage that leads to Alzheimer’s in some people.</p>
<p>We later found the virus’s DNA <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18973185/">inside the sticky clumps of these proteins</a>, which are found in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. Even more encouragingly, antiviral treatments reduced this damage in the lab, suggesting that drugs might one day help to slow or even prevent the disease.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39956964/">Large population studies</a> by others found that severe infections, specifically with the cold sore virus, was a strong predictor of Alzheimer’s, and that specific antiviral treatment <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34136638/">reduced the risk</a>.</p>
<p>Our research didn’t stop there. We <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3233/JAD-220287">wondered if</a> other viruses that lie dormant in the body might have similar effects – such as the one responsible for chickenpox and shingles.</p>
<h2>Shingles vaccine offers another clue</h2>
<p>When we studied health records from hundreds of thousands of people in the UK, we saw something interesting. People who had shingles had only a slightly higher risk of developing dementia. Yet those who had the shingles vaccine were <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34625411/">less likely</a> to develop dementia at all.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2833335">new Stanford University-led study</a> gave similar results.</p>
<p>This supported our long-held proposal that preventing common infections could lower the risk of Alzheimer’s. Consistently, studies by others showed that infections were indeed a risk and that some other vaccines were protective against Alzheimer’s.</p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scisignal.ado6430">then explored</a> how risk factors for Alzheimer’s such as infections and head injuries could trigger the hidden virus in the brain.</p>
<p>Using an advanced 3D model of the brain with a dormant herpes infection, we found that when we introduced other infections or simulated a brain injury, the cold sore virus reactivated and caused damage similar to that seen in Alzheimer’s. But when we used a treatment to reduce inflammation, the virus stayed inactive, and the damage didn’t happen.</p>
<p>All of this suggests that the virus that causes cold sores could be an important contributor to Alzheimer’s, especially in people with certain genetic risk factors. It also opens the door to possible new ways of preventing the disease, such as vaccines or antiviral treatments that stop the virus from waking up and harming the brain.</p>
<p>What began as a link between cold sores and memory loss has grown into a much bigger story – one that may help us understand, and eventually reduce, the risk of one of the most feared diseases of our time.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/254656/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/thirty-years-on-our-research-linking-viral-infections-with-alzheimers-is-finally-getting-the-attention-it-deserves-254656">original article</a>.</em></p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/bdsm-practitioners-exhibit-higher-secure-attachment-and-lower-neuroticism/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">BDSM practitioners exhibit higher secure attachment and lower neuroticism</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">May 25th 2025, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A new study published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2024.2364891" target="_blank">Journal of Homosexuality</a></em> has found that individuals who practice BDSM tend to have healthier psychological profiles than those who do not. Compared to non-practitioners, BDSM participants were more likely to have secure attachment styles, lower rejection sensitivity, and higher levels of well-being. These findings challenge the persistent social stigma that often links BDSM with emotional dysfunction or psychopathology.</p>
<p>The study was designed to replicate and extend the work of a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jsm.12192" target="_blank">2013 study by Wismeijer and Van Assen</a>, which reported that BDSM practitioners showed more functional psychological traits than non-practitioners. Despite the social stigma surrounding BDSM—an umbrella term encompassing practices involving consensual power exchange, sensation play, and role-play—the original study found no evidence of psychological harm associated with these sexual interests. </p>
<p>However, the field lacked high-powered replication studies, especially outside of Western European countries. To address this gap, the researchers set out to test whether the original findings held true in a large, diverse Spanish sample and to explore additional factors such as sexual orientation, gender identity, and depth of BDSM experience.</p>
<p>To conduct this study, the researchers recruited 1,884 Spanish adults through social media, online networks, and a sex toy retailer’s newsletter. About 60% of participants identified as BDSM practitioners, while the remaining 40% did not. The sample was diverse in terms of gender and sexual orientation: 58% were cisgender women, 35% cisgender men, and 6% identified as transgender or gender non-conforming. Over half identified as part of the LGBTQIA+ community. Participants were between the ages of 18 and 68, with a median age of 28.</p>
<p>Participants completed a series of validated self-report questionnaires that assessed their personality traits (based on the Big Five model), attachment styles, rejection sensitivity, and subjective well-being. They were also asked about their BDSM practices, including their roles (dominant, submissive, switch), experiences related to power or pain dynamics (top, bottom, switch), and the frequency of their engagement in BDSM activities.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a series of statistical analyses to compare BDSM practitioners with non-practitioners. They controlled for demographic factors such as age, gender, and education. They also explored whether specific roles within BDSM (e.g., dominant vs. submissive) were associated with unique psychological patterns.</p>
<p>Overall, the results strongly supported the original 2013 findings. BDSM practitioners were more likely than non-practitioners to report secure attachment styles, particularly among those who identified as dominants. These individuals also had higher scores on conscientiousness and openness to experience, and lower scores on neuroticism and rejection sensitivity—traits often linked to emotional stability and interpersonal effectiveness.</p>
<p>While the differences were not uniform across all roles, dominants consistently showed the most functional psychological profiles. They reported higher extraversion and well-being, and lower neuroticism and rejection sensitivity, especially among women. Submissives and switches generally fell in between dominants and non-practitioners on most measures.</p>
<p>Notably, BDSM practitioners also reported higher levels of well-being, with dominants again standing out as the most satisfied group. This supports prior research suggesting that BDSM, for many, is not simply a set of sexual practices but also a source of empowerment, connection, and self-expression. Practitioners with more experience in BDSM reported even greater psychological benefits.</p>
<p>Another important finding was that the psychological structure—how attachment styles, personality traits, and well-being relate to one another—was consistent across both BDSM practitioners and non-practitioners. This suggests that while BDSM practitioners may differ in levels of certain traits, the basic architecture of their psychological functioning is no different from the general population.</p>
<p>The study also found that sexual orientation and gender identity played a role in shaping psychological characteristics. For example, bi/pansexual individuals tended to report lower discomfort with emotional closeness compared to other groups, and transgender and gender non-conforming individuals scored higher on openness and rejection sensitivity. These intersections point to the importance of considering broader social contexts and minority stress when interpreting psychological data.</p>
<p>Importantly, the researchers emphasized that their findings contradict the outdated notion that BDSM is a sign of psychological damage or deviance. While BDSM has historically been pathologized—often viewed as the result of childhood trauma or emotional dysfunction—the data did not support this view. Instead, BDSM appears to be a variation of healthy sexual expression, often associated with traits that promote personal and relational well-being.</p>
<p>But the study was not without its limitations. Its cross-sectional design means that causal relationships cannot be determined. For instance, it remains unclear whether engaging in BDSM leads to greater well-being or whether individuals with certain psychological traits are more drawn to BDSM. The researchers also used self-reported data, which can be subject to bias. Additionally, the sample was not representative of the broader population, given its reliance on self-selection and social networks for recruitment.</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, the study offers compelling evidence that BDSM practitioners are psychologically well-adjusted individuals. It reinforces the need for healthcare professionals, educators, and the public to reconsider harmful stereotypes and assumptions about kink communities. The researchers call for more replication studies, particularly those that use longitudinal designs and more representative samples, to deepen our understanding of how BDSM fits into the broader landscape of human sexuality and mental health.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2024.2364891" target="_blank">Not Twisted, Just Kinky: Replication and Structural Invariance of Attachment, Personality, and Well-Being Among BDSM Practitioners</a>,” was authored by Oscar Lecuona, Olga Martínez-Barajas, Alejandro Gimeno-Martín, Alejandra Hernansaiz, Carla Carrillo-Molina, Rodrigo Alcolea-Cantero, Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, and Sara de Rivas.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/mindfulness-in-marriage-may-help-ease-divorce-anxiety-tied-to-infidelity-tendencies/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Mindfulness in marriage may help ease divorce anxiety tied to infidelity tendencies</a>
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<p><p>A new study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941241313436" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psychological Reports</a></em> has found that mindfulness within marriage can reduce feelings of divorce anxiety in people who report a greater tendency toward infidelity. The research suggests that mindfulness may act as a buffer, easing some of the stress and fear that can accompany concerns about the end of a marriage.</p>
<p>Marriage plays a central role in many people’s lives, providing emotional support, stability, and a foundation for raising children. But it also comes with stressors, especially when trust is broken. Infidelity is one of the most disruptive challenges to a marriage. When one partner is unfaithful—or when there’s a tendency toward unfaithfulness—it can lead to emotional turmoil, break down trust, and heighten fears of divorce.</p>
<p>This fear, known as divorce anxiety, involves worrying about the possible end of a marriage and the emotional, financial, and social consequences that come with it. Even when a marriage is stable, concerns about its longevity can take a toll on a person’s mental health.</p>
<p>Mindfulness has emerged as a promising tool in the realm of relationship psychology. Being mindful in a marriage means being present and aware of your emotions, behaviors, and your partner’s needs, without judgment. Researchers have proposed that mindfulness may help couples handle conflict more constructively, and this study was designed to explore whether it might also reduce divorce anxiety, especially among those prone to infidelity.</p>
<p>The researchers recruited 415 married individuals living in Turkey. Participants completed an online survey that included several psychological scales. These included the Infidelity Tendency Scale, which measured how likely someone was to engage in unfaithful behavior; the Divorce Anxiety Scale, which measured how worried they were about their marriage ending; and the Mindfulness in Marriage Scale, which assessed how attentive, accepting, and emotionally aware they were in their relationships.</p>
<p>The study used a correlational design, meaning it looked for patterns between the variables but did not attempt to show direct cause and effect. The researchers analyzed the data using statistical software, including tests to explore whether mindfulness acted as a mediator between infidelity tendencies and divorce anxiety. In other words, they wanted to see if being more mindful in a marriage helped reduce the anxiety someone felt about divorce—even if that person had a higher inclination toward infidelity.</p>
<p>The findings revealed several small but significant relationships among the three main variables.</p>
<p>First, there was a low but statistically significant negative relationship between infidelity tendency and divorce anxiety. This means that people who were more likely to be unfaithful tended to feel less anxious about the idea of divorce. While this may seem counterintuitive, it aligns with previous research suggesting that those more open to infidelity may also be less emotionally invested in preserving the relationship.</p>
<p>Second, there was a low but significant positive relationship between infidelity tendency and marital mindfulness. This finding is surprising, as one might expect people prone to cheating to be less mindful in their relationships. The researchers suggest this could reflect a complex dynamic, where some individuals may be emotionally aware or self-reflective but still engage in behaviors that undermine the relationship.</p>
<p>Third, the study found a low but significant negative relationship between divorce anxiety and mindfulness. People who were more mindful in their marriages tended to feel less anxious about the possibility of divorce. This supports earlier findings that mindfulness can reduce anxiety and improve emotional regulation in close relationships.</p>
<p>Most importantly, the researchers found that mindfulness partially explained the relationship between infidelity tendency and divorce anxiety. In statistical terms, mindfulness served as a “partial mediator.” This means that for people who are more likely to be unfaithful, having higher levels of mindfulness slightly reduces the anxiety they might otherwise feel about divorce. In the model tested, infidelity still had a direct effect on divorce anxiety, but mindfulness helped soften that impact.</p>
<p>The effects were modest. The model explained about 6% of the variation in divorce anxiety, suggesting that many other factors are also involved. However, the consistent pattern of relationships among the three variables provides a valuable starting point for future research and clinical interventions.</p>
<p>While the study sheds light on an interesting intersection of psychological traits in marriage, it has some limitations. First, the design was correlational, meaning that the researchers can’t say whether infidelity tendencies cause changes in mindfulness or anxiety. It’s possible that the relationships run in the opposite direction or that other factors are influencing all three variables.</p>
<p>The sample also included significantly more women than men, which could affect the generalizability of the findings. Cultural factors specific to Turkey may also limit how applicable the results are to other populations. Future studies could include more diverse and balanced samples and use longitudinal designs to track changes in relationships over time.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941241313436" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Examining Mindfulness’s Mediating Role in the Relationship Between Infidelity Tendency and Divorce Anxiety</a>,” was authored by Süleyman Kahraman and Ahmet Özbay.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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