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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News Daily Digest (Unofficial)</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/sad-and-surprising-truths-about-narcissistic-gift-giving-revealed-in-new-psychology-research/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Sad and surprising truths about narcissistic gift-giving revealed in new psychology research</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 17th 2024, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jopy.12983"><em>Journal of Personality</em></a> sheds light on how two distinct facets of narcissism affect the likelihood and motivations behind gift-giving. The findings reveal that individuals high in narcissistic admiration are more likely to give gifts, driven by a desire to enhance social bonds and showcase themselves as superior relationship partners. In contrast, those high in narcissistic rivalry tend to avoid gift-giving, particularly in close relationships, due to feelings of threat and a lack of interest in fostering social closeness.</p>
<h3>The Background: Narcissistic Admiration vs Narcissistic Rivalry</h3>
<p>Gift-giving plays a central role in human relationships, fostering intimacy, trust, and connection. While research has explored various factors influencing gift-giving behavior, the role of personality traits, particularly narcissism, remains understudied. Narcissism is a multifaceted trait, encompassing both socially engaging (admiration) and socially antagonistic (rivalry) tendencies.</p>
<p>“The type of narcissism most people are familiar with, called grandiose narcissism, has two forms that work in different ways,” explained study author <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/colleenpkirk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Colleen P. Kirk</a>, a professor of management and marketing at the <a href="https://site.nyit.edu/bio/ckirk01" target="_blank" rel="noopener">New York Institute of Technology</a>. “People who are higher in narcissistic admiration are always looking for ways to promote themselves and build themselves up, whereas people who are higher in narcissistic rivalry try to enhance themselves by putting others down. They are different strategies for achieving the same goal –reminding others how great they are.”</p>
<p>Given the interpersonal nature of gift-giving, the researchers aimed to explore how these two dimensions of narcissism interact with motivations for giving and the specific contexts that might influence this behavior. By examining gift-giving through the lens of narcissistic admiration and rivalry, the study sought to clarify how personality shapes the decisions and motivations behind giving.</p>
<p>“When I was growing up, there was someone in my extended family who routinely ignored my birthday,” Kirk told PsyPost. “In fact, he ignored all of our family members’ birthdays. Not a card, not a “happy birthday” mumble, and certainly not a gift, even if he was with us. On the other hand, he was a very socially adept person and never seemed to forget other birthdays that were important to him. Later in my life, I came to realize that he was probably high on the personality trait of narcissism.”</p>
<p>“As a consumer behavior researcher, I’m fascinated by what drives people’s purchasing behavior. I wondered whether this type of gift-giving behavior was something characteristic of narcissists, or if it was just unique to my relative. I approached my two colleagues, Constantine Sedikides from University of Southampton, and Julian Givi, from West Virginia University, and we decided to tackle this question together.”</p>
<h3>Methodology and Findings from Three Pilot Studies and Six Main Studies</h3>
<p>The researchers first conducted three pilot studies to explore how narcissistic admiration and rivalry influence gift-giving behaviors. The results provided initial evidence that admiration and rivalry diverge in their motivations and attitudes toward gift-giving. Kirk and her colleagues then conducted a series of six additional studies.</p>
<p>Study 1 used a preregistered design to test how admiration and rivalry influenced gift-giving behavior. Participants (N = 399) were asked if they would purchase a $25 Amazon gift card or fine crystal glasses as gifts for their best friend or keep the reward for themselves. The incentive-compatible setup included a lottery where a subset of participants’ choices was enacted, adding a behavioral component to the hypothetical scenario. Participants completed the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (NARQ) afterward to assess their levels of admiration and rivalry.</p>
<p>The results confirmed that admiration and rivalry are associated with divergent gift-giving behaviors. Admirative individuals were more likely to give a gift to their best friend, whereas rivalrous individuals were less likely to do so. These patterns emerged consistently for both hypothetical and actual gift-giving decisions.</p>
<p>Next, the researchers tested gift-giving in a new context and ruled out self-esteem and socially desirable responding as alternative explanations. Participants (N = 200) imagined attending a dinner party and rated the likelihood of bringing a pot of plants as a gift. Two weeks before this survey, participants completed the NARQ, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and an impression management scale. Regression analyses included these variables alongside admiration and rivalry to determine their unique contributions to gift-giving likelihood, and mediation analyses tested indirect effects through self-esteem or impression management.</p>
<p>Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 in a new context. Admiration was again positively, and rivalry negatively, associated with gift-giving likelihood. Importantly, self-esteem and socially desirable responding did not explain these relationships.</p>
<p>To examine the underlying motivations for narcissistic gift-giving, the researchers conducted a third study. Participants (N = 398) imagined giving a birthday gift to their best friend and rated their likelihood of doing so. They also completed measures of communal motivations (e.g., loyalty, love, and trust) and agentic motivations (e.g., showcasing status). Communal gift-giving motivation was tested as a mediator between narcissistic traits and gifting likelihood using Hayes’ PROCESS model.</p>
<p>The results demonstrated that admiration and rivalry influence gift-giving through differing communal motivations. Admiration was positively associated with communal motivations, such as valuing loyalty, love, and respect, which mediated the relationship between admiration and increased gift-giving likelihood.</p>
<p>Conversely, rivalry was negatively associated with communal motivations, fully mediating its negative relationship with gift-giving. These results suggest that admirative individuals are motivated by relational closeness and communal values, while rivalrous individuals reject these motivations, seeing gift-giving as a potential threat to their self-image.</p>
<p>Study 4 examined how social closeness influenced the relationship between rivalry and gift-giving. Participants (N = 402) imagined giving a gift to either a best friend (close) or a typical acquaintance (distant). They rated their likelihood of giving a gift and their perceived social connection to the recipient. Admiration, rivalry, and the interaction between rivalry and social closeness were tested as predictors of gifting likelihood. Regression analyses compared results across recipient closeness conditions to determine how social context affected rivalry’s impact.</p>
<p>The researchers found that participants were more likely to give gifts to a best friend than to a typical acquaintance, but rivalry negatively affected gift-giving in the context of close relationships. (For acquaintances, rivalry did not significantly influence gifting likelihood.) This finding indicates that rivalrous individuals perceive gift-giving to close others as a threat to their self-concept but feel less burdened by gifting in less personally significant contexts.</p>
<p>“Although I had had a personal experience with narcissism and gift-giving, I was still surprised to discover that there are people who intentionally ignore their best friend’s or close family member’s birthday,” Kirk said. “These rivalrous narcissists don’t want to feel close to others. They tend to push people away, and this is even shown in their approach to gifting.”</p>
<p>Study 5 investigated whether admiration’s link to gift-giving was moderated by the type of gift. Participants (N = 400) evaluated gifting fine crystal glasses, either standard or customized with the recipient’s initials, to their best friend. (A pretest confirmed the customized glasses were seen as more recipient-focused.)</p>
<p>The results highlighted that admirative individuals’ generosity is moderated by the nature of the gift. Admiration was positively associated with gift-giving likelihood for standard gifts but not for recipient-centric gifts, such as customized crystal glasses. This supports the idea that admirative individuals value gifts that promote their self-image, finding standard gifts more suitable for self-promotion.</p>
<p>“In needing to prove their generosity, narcissists driven by admiration are more likely to shower recipients with lots of gifts (‘love bombing’),” Kirk explained. “But these gifts are not intended to celebrate the recipient—they’re meant to show how great the giver is.”</p>
<p>Finally, Study SM1 addressed whether rivalry’s negative impact on gift-giving stemmed from fear of failure. Participants (N = 399) imagined giving a gift to their best friend with or without access to an Amazon wishlist. This setup controlled for uncertainty about the recipient’s preferences, a potential source of fear.</p>
<p>Access to an Amazon wishlist, which eliminated uncertainty about the recipient’s preferences, did not attenuate the negative relationship between rivalry and gifting likelihood. Admirative individuals were similarly unaffected by the presence of a gift registry, as their behavior was not motivated by alleviating fear of failure but rather by their self-promotion goals.</p>
<p>“Narcissists driven by rivalry are more likely to give a gift to an acquaintance than their best friend,” Kirk said. “We found that this isn’t because they’re afraid of ‘giving a bad gift.’ In fact, when presented with a wish list, ensuring their friend would like any item they selected, these narcissists still chose not to give a gift. So, not giving gifts to those closest to them allows these narcissists to avoid unwanted feelings of warmth and closeness.”</p>
<h3>The Take Home Message: It’s About Them, Not You</h3>
<p>Together, these studies provide robust evidence that admiration and rivalry represent distinct motivational pathways influencing gift-giving behavior. Admirative individuals are driven by communal motivations and opportunities for self-promotion, making them more generous, particularly with gifts that reflect well on them. Rivalrous individuals, on the other hand, view gift-giving as a threat to their self-concept and exhibit avoidance behaviors, especially in close relationships.</p>
<p>“When it comes to our research, ultimately, how narcissists give gifts is all about them,” Kirk told PsyPost. “It has nothing to do with you! For example, if someone showers or ‘love bombs’ you with presents this holiday season, you may have a narcissist driven by admiration on your hands. But don’t hold your breath for any thoughtful or personalized gifts—after all, how can they show off if the gift is all about you and not <em>them</em>?”</p>
<p>“On the other hand, if your narcissistic friend is surprisingly generous with an acquaintance but less inclined to give you a gift, you might be closer than you think!”</p>
<p>“The important thing to remember is that for your birthday or during the holidays, whether you receive lots of gifts or <em>none at all</em>, just know it’s not a reflection of you,” Kirk added. “The narcissist wasn’t even thinking of you, so try not to take it to heart!”</p>
<h3>Looking Ahead</h3>
<p>The research highlights how narcissistic traits influence gift-giving behavior in nuanced ways. But despite the robust findings, there are still limitations. The studies were conducted in the United States and United Kingdom, where gift-giving norms may differ from other cultures. Future research could explore whether these patterns hold across diverse cultural settings.</p>
<p>Future studies could also investigate how these findings apply in different relational contexts, such as romantic partnerships or parent-child dynamics, where gift-giving motivations may vary. Additionally, exploring the role of other personality traits, such as empathy or agreeableness, could provide a more nuanced understanding of the psychological factors influencing gift-giving.</p>
<p>“I have been interested in narcissism for a while, and this was my second project on narcissism in consumer behavior,” Kirk said. “I have several other projects already in the works with various wonderful coauthors, on gift-giving as well as other topics. So stay tuned!”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12983">Just Because I’m Great (and You’re Not): When, Why, and How Narcissistic Individuals Give Gifts to Others</a>,” was authored by Colleen P. Kirk, Constantine Sedikides, and Julian Givi.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/surprising-adhd-research-finds-greater-life-demands-linked-to-reduced-symptoms/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Surprising ADHD research finds greater life demands linked to reduced symptoms</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 17th 2024, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>A long-term study has shed new light on how attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) changes over time, finding that most individuals experience alternating periods of symptom remission and recurrence rather than a static course of persistent symptoms. The research, published in the <a href="https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/fluctuating-adhd-multimodal-treatment-of-adhd-mta-study/"><em>Journal of Clinical Psychiatry</em></a>, suggests that ADHD is not a simple condition that either resolves or persists but one that often fluctuates depending on life circumstances and other factors.</p>
<p>ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition that typically begins in childhood and affects a person’s ability to focus, control impulses, and regulate activity levels. Common symptoms include difficulty sustaining attention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which can significantly impact daily life, school, and work. ADHD has traditionally been understood as a chronic condition, with studies suggesting that about half of those diagnosed in childhood continue to experience symptoms into adulthood.</p>
<p>However, growing evidence suggests that ADHD doesn’t always follow a straightforward trajectory of persistence or remission. For many individuals, symptoms seem to fluctuate, with periods of improvement and recurrence over time. This evolving understanding of ADHD raises important questions. If symptoms can wax and wane, what factors drive these changes? Are they influenced by external circumstances, such as environmental demands?</p>
<p>The researchers behind the new study sought to address these questions using data from <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/funding/clinical-research/practical/mta/the-multimodal-treatment-of-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-study-mtaquestions-and-answers">the Multimodal Treatment of ADHD (MTA) study</a>, a long-term project initially designed to compare various treatments for ADHD in children.</p>
<p>“I have been researching the nature of how ADHD changes over time for a while, and in 2022, <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2021.21010032">we published a paper</a> looking into whether it is possible for anyone to truly outgrow their ADHD permanently,” said study author <a href="https://www.margaretsibley.com/">Margaret H. Sibley</a>, a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the University of Washington School of Medicine and a clinical psychologist at Seattle Children’s Hospital.</p>
<p>“In the 2022 paper, we found that only about 9% of the sample appeared to truly remit from or recover from their ADHD long-term. However, we also found a surprising result: in most of the sample, ADHD was highly fluctuating. This means that in some years, people experienced full-severity ADHD, while in other years, their symptoms and impairments were mild—or even not present at all. Because this finding was unexpected, we published this 2024 paper to look more closely into what was going on.”</p>
<p>For this follow-up study, the researchers analyzed data from 483 participants, all of whom were diagnosed with ADHD in childhood and tracked for 16 years. Participants were between 7 and 10 years old at the study’s start, with follow-up assessments conducted approximately every two years, extending into their mid-20s. The goal was to understand how ADHD symptoms and impairments changed over time and identify factors predicting periods of remission and recurrence.</p>
<p>At each assessment, participants and their parents (or other close informants) provided detailed information about ADHD symptoms, functional impairments, and treatment usage. ADHD symptoms were measured using validated rating scales, which asked participants to report the frequency and severity of behaviors such as inattentiveness and hyperactivity. Impairments—such as challenges in school, work, or relationships—were also assessed. Additionally, the researchers evaluated participants’ environmental demands, such as their level of responsibility in areas like work, education, and finances.</p>
<p>The participants were grouped into four longitudinal patterns: stable persistence (symptoms consistently met diagnostic thresholds), stable partial remission, recovery (sustained full remission), and fluctuating ADHD (alternating periods of remission and recurrence).</p>
<p>The majority of participants (63.8%) exhibited fluctuating ADHD, characterized by periods of remission interspersed with recurrences of symptoms. On average, these individuals experienced three to four transitions between remission and recurrence over the 16-year study period. The fluctuations were significant, with participants’ symptom severity varying by as much as six or seven symptoms between their best and worst phases. The first remission periods often began in early adolescence, around age 12, but symptoms tended to return within a few years.</p>
<p>The findings highlight that “ADHD fluctuations are common and substantive” and that “most desistance from ADHD represents partial, rather than full, remission,” Sibley told PsyPost.</p>
<p>Only 9.1% of participants achieved sustained full remission with no recurrence of symptoms during the later years of the study. Another 15.6% of participants experienced one significant reduction in symptoms, typically beginning in late adolescence or early adulthood, that remained stable thereafter. About 11% of participants exhibited consistently high symptoms throughout the study, with minimal or no improvement over time.</p>
<p>“Recovery from ADHD by young adulthood is rare—most remitted ADHD recurs,” Sibley said.</p>
<p>The study also shed light on the role of environmental demands in shaping ADHD symptoms. Participants were more likely to experience remission during periods of higher environmental demands, such as taking on significant responsibilities at work, school, or home. This counterintuitive finding suggests that structured, demanding environments may help some individuals with ADHD manage their symptoms more effectively, possibly by providing external motivation or structure.</p>
<p>“We expected the relationship between environmental demands and ADHD symptoms to be the opposite of what we found,” Sibley explained. “We hypothesized that when life demands and responsibilities increased, this might exacerbate people’s ADHD, making it more severe. In fact, it was the opposite. The higher the demands and responsibilities one was experiencing, the milder their ADHD.”</p>
<p>“This might mean that people with ADHD perform their best in more demanding environments (perhaps environments that have stronger immediate consequences, like needing to put food on the table for a family or pay rent monthly). It also might mean that people with ADHD take more on their plate when their symptoms are relatively at bay.”</p>
<p>However, this relationship weakened as participants aged, indicating that environmental influences on ADHD symptoms may evolve over time.</p>
<p>The study also identified childhood factors predicting long-term outcomes. For instance, individuals in the recovery group tended to have fewer mood disorders and lower levels of parental psychopathology compared to those with stable persistence or fluctuating ADHD. These findings suggest that both internal traits and external factors contribute to the course of ADHD over time.</p>
<p>This research highlights the need for a more dynamic understanding of ADHD. Rather than viewing the condition as a fixed trait, clinicians and individuals with ADHD might benefit from anticipating and planning for fluctuations. The study also underscores the importance of communicating realistic expectations to patients. People with ADHD should know that periods of symptom worsening are normal and not a sign of failure.</p>
<p>“If you’re a doctor talking with a patient who is first getting diagnosed with ADHD, it’s a huge help for that person to hear the message that, ‘You’re going to have good years and not-so-good years, but things can go really well for you if you can get the right factors in place,'” Sibley said.</p>
<p>But as with all research, there are limitations. First, the sample consisted mainly of individuals diagnosed with the combined type of ADHD, so the findings may not fully apply to those with inattentive or hyperactive/impulsive types. Additionally, the assessments were conducted every two years, which may have missed finer details about the timing and triggers of fluctuations.</p>
<p>“It is pretty much impossible to use statistics to tease a part the exact reason for the trends we saw,” Sibley noted.</p>
<p>Future research could explore how specific factors—such as lifestyle changes, treatment adherence, and comorbid conditions—interact with ADHD symptoms over shorter time intervals. Researchers might also investigate how genetic and environmental factors combine to influence these patterns.</p>
<p>“We would like to identify lifestyle and environmental factors that can help people with ADHD live their happiest and healthiest lives,” Sibley said. “Conversations between researchers and people with lived experiences with ADHD are critical. If readers have ADHD and are interested in connecting with our team to be involved in focus groups or interviews with us, <a href="https://www.margaretsibley.com/motivational-interviewing-for-adhd/">there is a form on my website</a> that they can enter their information into.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.24m15395">Characteristics and Predictors of Fluctuating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in the Multimodal Treatment of ADHD (MTA) Study</a>,” was authored by Margaret H. Sibley, Traci M. Kennedy, James M. Swanson, L. Eugene Arnold, Peter S. Jensen, Lily T. Hechtman, Brooke S. G. Molina, Andrea Howard, Laurence Greenhill, Andrea Chronis-Tuscano, John T. Mitchell, Jeffrey H. Newcorn, Luis A. Rohde, and Stephen P. Hinshaw.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/your-politics-can-affect-whether-you-click-on-sponsored-search-results-new-research-shows/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Your politics can affect whether you click on sponsored search results, new research shows</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 16th 2024, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>American businesses spend <a href="https://www.statista.com/topics/4312/search-advertising/">close to US$100 billion each year</a> to secure top advertising spots in search engine results – even though it’s not exactly a secret that most online shoppers scroll right past them.</p>
<p>In fact, organic links – results that aren’t sponsored advertisements – can receive <a href="https://firstpagesage.com/reports/clickthrough-rates-ctr-for-organic-vs-paid-search">up to 10 times</a> as many clicks as search ads, industry data shows.</p>
<p>I refer to this phenomenon as “search ad avoidance,” and it’s a big problem for the multibillion-dollar industry. But it turns out that not all groups are equally averse to clicking on sponsored search results.</p>
<p>According to my newly published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2024.2393708">peer-reviewed research</a>, people with conservative political views are more likely to click on sponsored search results.</p>
<p>Republican-leaning brands such as <a href="https://sherwood.news/business/brands-liberal-conservative-divide-yougov-survey">Black Rifle Coffee Company</a> might want to take note.</p>
<h2>Conservatives are more likely to click search ads</h2>
<p>To explore the relationship between politics and search engine behavior, I conducted several studies.</p>
<p>First, I examined data from more than 500,000 visitors to a nationwide retailer’s website. I analyzed the percentage of visitors from each U.S. state who arrived at the website by clicking a search ad versus an organic link. Then I looked at the share of each state’s residents who describe themselves as conservative.</p>
<p>I found that more conservative states were associated with more clicks for search ads over organic links. Specifically, a 10% increase in a state’s conservative identity was associated with a 6.4% increase in search ad clicks.</p>
<p>Given that, on average, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/04/09/age-generational-cohorts-and-party-identification">conservatives are older</a> and have <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/04/09/partisanship-by-family-income-home-ownership-union-membership-and-veteran-status">higher incomes</a> than liberals, I also looked at each state’s median age and per-capita personal income. Again, the data confirmed the relationship between conservatism and search ad clicks. Neither age nor income had any significant impact.</p>
<p>To better understand what was going on, I conducted additional studies where I could monitor people’s searches in a more controlled setting using online surveys.</p>
<p>I asked online participants to search for a product the same way they would using Google. Then, I brought them to a search results page and asked them to indicate how likely they would be to click on a search ad versus an organic link.</p>
<p>I also measured their political orientation in two different ways: through self-identification and attitudes toward political issues. Once again, I found that regardless of age or income, more conservative people were more likely to click on search ads.</p>
<h2>The promotional is political</h2>
<p>The decision to click on an ad – or not – might seem quite minor. But I believe ad avoidance is strongly rooted in people’s core beliefs and values.</p>
<p>While conservatives tend to trust and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(03)25002-4">justify the role of marketplace systems</a>, liberals are more skeptical. Within the marketplace of online information search, I argue that conservatives are likely to be more trusting of sponsored communications than liberals, who lean toward organic content.</p>
<p>The importance of values becomes clear in a final analysis I conducted. In this real-world experiment, I created search ads for a website built specifically for this research and found that conservatives were more likely to click ads in response to broad searches, such as “Buy headphones.” But for more specific, detailed searches – for example, “Buy headphones with microphone that reduces background noise” – there was no relationship between politics and clicks.</p>
<p>I suspect this is because broad searches are less cognitively demanding – in other words, they require less brainpower. This allows our core beliefs to influence our decisions. In fact, this is consistent with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.04.008">research on information processing</a> that shows broad thinking leads to stronger political attitudes.</p>
<p>On the other hand, I argue that specific searches require us to pay close attention to the information we are processing, which disables our core beliefs from being the primary influence on our decisions.</p>
<h2>Why advertisers should take note</h2>
<p>These findings have obvious benefits for advertisers who want to better understand who’s most likely to click on search ads. This can help them generate campaign strategies that account for consumers’ political orientations, which I have shown to be a better predictor of click behavior than typical segmentation variables such as age or income.</p>
<p>Given that liberals are less likely to click search ads, it also suggests advertisers should be thinking about alternative ways to reach them. It’s possible that liberals could be persuaded to click search ads through a greater inclusion of trust symbols in advertising communications, such as star ratings or endorsements from credible influencers.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/239800/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/your-politics-can-affect-whether-you-click-on-sponsored-search-results-new-research-shows-239800">original article</a>.</em></p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/high-school-iq-predicts-alcohol-use-patterns-in-midlife-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">High school IQ predicts alcohol use patterns in midlife, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 16th 2024, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article-abstract/59/4/agae035/7683100"><em>Alcohol and Alcoholism</em></a> reveals a surprising link between intelligence in adolescence and drinking habits later in life. Researchers found that individuals with higher IQ scores in high school were more likely to be moderate or heavy drinkers as adults compared to those with lower IQ scores.</p>
<p>Alcohol consumption is a widespread behavior with varying health consequences. Excessive drinking is linked to severe health issues, including liver disease, stroke, and cancer. Identifying early predictors of alcohol use can help in understanding risk factors for harmful drinking patterns and guide preventative interventions.</p>
<p>IQ, often assessed through standardized tests, is a strong predictor of various life outcomes, such as education, income, and health. Previous studies have shown mixed results regarding its relationship with alcohol use. While some research had suggested that individuals with higher IQs consume more alcohol, other studies indicated a higher likelihood of abstinence. The researchers behind the new study hypothesized that social and economic factors might explain these discrepancies and sought to clarify the role of adolescent IQ in predicting midlife drinking patterns.</p>
<p>The study utilized data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, a long-term project initiated in 1957 to track over 10,000 high school seniors from Wisconsin. The original purpose of the study was to investigate the aspirations and socioeconomic circumstances of these students. Over the decades, this dataset has expanded, providing a wealth of information on various aspects of participants’ lives, including their cognitive abilities, socioeconomic factors, and health behaviors.</p>
<p>The final sample for this study included 6,300 participants who met specific criteria: they had completed IQ testing during high school, provided self-reported alcohol consumption data in 2004, and reported no history of liver disease. IQ was measured in high school using the Henmon-Nelson Test of Mental Ability, a 90-item, 30-minute assessment evaluating spatial, verbal, and mathematical intelligence. The sample consisted of predominantly White individuals born between 1938 and 1940, and a majority had achieved at least a bachelor’s degree by midlife.</p>
<p>Alcohol consumption was assessed during the 2004 survey wave, nearly five decades after the participants completed high school. Drinking patterns were classified as abstinence (no alcohol use), moderate drinking (1–59 drinks per month for men and 1–29 for women), or heavy drinking (≥60 drinks per month for men and ≥30 for women). Participants were also asked to report the number of binge-drinking episodes (five or more drinks in one sitting) over the past 30 days.</p>
<p>The analysis controlled for several factors that might influence the relationship between IQ and alcohol consumption, including sex, parental income, and high school class size. These variables were chosen because they reflect socioeconomic and environmental conditions during adolescence. Additionally, the researchers examined two potential mediators: education level and household income in midlife. Education was categorized by the highest degree attained, while household income was measured in thousands of dollars.</p>
<p>Higher IQ scores in high school were associated with an increased likelihood of being a moderate or heavy drinker in midlife. Specifically, each one-point increase in IQ raised the odds of moderate or heavy drinking by approximately 1.6%. However, IQ did not predict whether an individual was more likely to be a moderate drinker versus a heavy drinker, suggesting that the association applies broadly to alcohol consumption rather than its intensity.</p>
<p>In contrast to its association with general drinking patterns, IQ was inversely related to binge drinking. Individuals with higher IQs reported fewer instances of consuming five or more drinks in one sitting over the past 30 days. This finding suggests that while higher-IQ individuals are more likely to drink alcohol, they are less likely to engage in hazardous drinking behaviors.</p>
<p>“We’re not saying that your IQ in high school controls your destiny,” said senior author E. Sherwood Brown, a distinguished teaching professor of psychiatry at UT Southwestern Medical Center. “But IQ levels could lead to intervening social factors that influence drinking, and it’s an important mechanism to explore. Higher IQ seemed to predict a greater likelihood of being a moderate or heavy drinker but not a binge drinker.”</p>
<p>The mediation analyses revealed that household income partially explained the relationship between IQ and drinking patterns. Higher IQ scores were associated with greater household income in adulthood, and increased income was, in turn, linked to higher alcohol consumption. Education, on the other hand, did not significantly mediate this relationship. While higher education levels were associated with greater IQ and more frequent drinking, they did not fully account for the observed patterns.</p>
<p>“While it’s not possible to capture all the underlying mechanisms that mediate the relationship between drinking and IQ, we know that income partially explains the pathway between the two,” said study co-author Jayme Palka, an assistant professor of psychiatry.</p>
<p>Men were more likely than women to drink moderately or heavily and reported more binge-drinking episodes overall. Additionally, participants from larger high school classes, which often reflect urban settings, were more likely to be heavy drinkers. These findings align with broader research suggesting that alcohol consumption is influenced by cultural and environmental norms, such as the greater availability and social acceptance of alcohol in urban areas.</p>
<p>In addition, the study found that higher parental income during adolescence was associated with a greater likelihood of moderate or heavy drinking in adulthood. This relationship may reflect early exposure to social drinking norms or greater access to alcohol. Interestingly, parental income was also associated with fewer binge-drinking episodes, suggesting a complex interplay between socioeconomic factors and drinking behaviors.</p>
<p>Despite its contributions, the study has some limitations to consider. The sample lacked racial and ethnic diversity, as nearly all participants were White individuals born in Wisconsin around 1939. This homogeneity limits the generalizability of the findings to more diverse populations. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported alcohol consumption could introduce bias or inaccuracies.</p>
<p>The study also did not differentiate between alcohol preferences or diagnose alcohol use disorder, which would provide a clearer picture of harmful drinking patterns. Future research could address these gaps by including more diverse populations, exploring the role of life satisfaction, and examining the long-term health impacts of alcohol consumption.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agae035">IQ in high school as a predictor of midlife alcohol drinking patterns</a>,” was authored by Natalie Druffner, Donald Egan, Swetha Ramamurthy, Justin O’Brien, Allyson Folsom Davis, Jasmine Jack, Diona Symester, Kelston Thomas, Jayme M. Palka, Vishal J. Thakkar, and Edson Sherwood Brown.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/yoga-interventions-improve-self-reported-ptsd-and-depression-symptoms-study-finds/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Yoga interventions improve self-reported PTSD and depression symptoms, study finds</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 16th 2024, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>A new meta-analysis found that yoga interventions improve self-reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) immediately after the intervention. However, no improvement was observed when symptoms were assessed by a clinician. These interventions also reduced both immediate and long-term symptoms of depression. Not all types of yoga were equally effective. The paper was published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178124003834"><em>Psychiatry Research</em></a>.</p>
<p>Yoga is a practice that combines physical postures, controlled breathing, and meditation to promote physical, mental, and emotional well-being, as well as to reduce stress. Originating in ancient India, yoga practice not only increases flexibility and strength but also promotes relaxation. Because of these benefits, yoga has become widely popular worldwide. Some practitioners have developed therapeutic programs based on yoga, aiming to provide mental health benefits. These programs are referred to as yoga interventions.</p>
<p>Yoga interventions are used as complementary therapies to help individuals manage symptoms such as hyperarousal, intrusive thoughts, and emotional dysregulation. A common type of yoga-based intervention is trauma-sensitive yoga. This approach focuses on creating a safe, non-judgmental environment where participants are encouraged to reconnect with their bodies in a gentle, non-intrusive way. Techniques like controlled breathing and mindfulness meditation are central to these interventions, helping to calm the nervous system and reduce anxiety. Studies suggest that such practices may improve emotional regulation by modulating the body’s stress response and enhancing body awareness.</p>
<p>Study author Seyed Aria Nejadghaderi and his colleagues conducted a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials examining the efficacy of yoga-based interventions for PTSD. Their goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions in reducing PTSD symptoms. PTSD is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, characterized by symptoms such as flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, hyperarousal, and emotional numbness.</p>
<p>The researchers searched scientific publication databases for randomized controlled trials examining the efficacy or safety of yoga for individuals with PTSD, published before March 2023. The search, conducted by two authors, included terms such as “yoga,” “asana,” “pranayama,” “Dhyana,” “Hatha,” “Jivamukti,” “post-traumatic stress disorder,” “PTSD,” “stress disorder,” “moral injury,” and “post-traumatic neuroses.”</p>
<p>To be included in the analysis, studies needed to use an experimental design, focus on adults with PTSD diagnosed using validated instruments, include a control group that received either no treatment or a non-yoga-based comparison treatment, and evaluate changes in symptoms as an effect of the yoga intervention.</p>
<p>The search identified 20 eligible studies, encompassing a total of 954 participants with an average age of 51 years. Of these participants, 60% were female. Sixteen of the studies were conducted in the United States, and 12 involved adult veterans. Six studies utilized Kripalu Yoga, five used simplified Kundalini yoga, five employed trauma-center trauma-sensitive yoga, and the remaining studies used other types of yoga.</p>
<p>The pooled results showed that yoga interventions significantly reduced self-reported PTSD symptoms immediately after the intervention. However, these effects were not sustained over time. When PTSD symptoms were assessed by a clinician, yoga did not show any significant improvement.</p>
<p>Yoga interventions also reduced depression symptoms compared to control groups, and these reductions were sustained over time. However, there were no significant decreases in anxiety symptoms or other types of symptoms.</p>
<p>An analysis by yoga type revealed that PTSD symptoms were reduced in participants undergoing interventions based on trauma-center trauma-sensitive yoga, Kundalini yoga, Satyananda yoga, and the Holistic Yoga Program. However, no improvements were observed in studies using simplified Kundalini yoga, Kripalu yoga, or Hatha yoga.</p>
<p>“Findings demonstrate yoga is generally a safe and well-tolerated intervention that may improve depressive symptoms in participants with PTSD and, to a lesser degree, also improve PTSD symptoms. Results suggest TCTSY [trauma center trauma-sensitive yoga], Kundalini, Satyananda Yoga, and HYP [Holistic Yoga Program] may be particularly efficacious compared to other types of yoga interventions and should be targeted in future research,” the study authors concluded.</p>
<p>The paper, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116098">Efficacy of yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials,</a>” was authored by Seyed Aria Nejadghaderi, Seyed Ehsan Mousavi, Asra Fazlollahi, Kimia Motlagh Asghari, and Dana Rose Garfin.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/do-unfaithful-men-spend-more-money-on-gifts-for-their-mistresses-than-their-wives/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Do unfaithful men spend more money on gifts for their mistresses than their wives?</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Nov 16th 2024, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>New research published in <em><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-35279-001?doi=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences</a></em> challenges a popular belief: men do not necessarily spend more on gifts for affair partners than for their committed partners. Instead, both men and women spend more on maintaining long-term relationships, with significantly less spending directed at partners in extramarital or casual relationships.</p>
<p>“We initially became interested in this topic after hearing a wildlife biologist give a talk about the curious mating behavior of fairy wrens, a bird <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2019/03/a-guide-to-australias-fairy-wrens/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">endemic to Australia</a>,” said study authors Olivia James (a graduate student at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs) and Keelah Williams (an associate professor of psychology at Hamilton College).</p>
<p>“Fairy wrens engage in both monogamous and extrapair relationships, similar to human relationships. When courting extrapair females outside their nest, the male fairy wren will present the female with a flower petal as a token of their interest. This same courtship ritual doesn’t occur when the male courts a monogamous partner.”</p>
<p>“We thought there was an interesting analogy here with a common trope in Western romantic comedies: that if a man is engaging in an affair he will spend more money on a gift for his affair partner than on his wife (such as seen in the film <em>Love Actually</em>). We became curious about whether this trope was simply reflective of current pop culture or, instead, reflected real gift-giving behaviors in romantic relationships.”</p>
<p>To investigate, researchers conducted three studies, each designed to explore different aspects of gift-giving in relationships. In the first study, they focused on hypothetical spending scenarios to capture how much participants would be willing to spend on gifts in different relationship contexts. A total of 139 participants were recruited and asked to imagine themselves in various relationship scenarios, including situations involving either committed partners or affair partners. For each scenario, they were instructed to imagine spending on a gift for a specific partner, either to maintain an ongoing relationship or to initiate a new one.</p>
<p>In the second study, the researchers gathered data on real-life spending by asking 233 participants to recall their own experiences in both committed and extramarital relationships. They divided participants based on their history of relationships, distinguishing those who had only been in committed relationships from those who had been involved in extramarital relationships. Participants were asked to recall the typical cost of gifts they had received from their partners, enabling the researchers to compare actual gift spending across relationship types.</p>
<p>The third study expanded on the first two by exploring societal stereotypes around gift spending. This time, 151 participants were asked to make judgments about how they thought others would spend on gifts in similar relationship scenarios, rather than imagining their own spending behavior. Participants responded to the same types of hypothetical scenarios used in Study 1, but instead of reporting how they would personally spend, they estimated how people of their own gender might approach gift spending on committed versus extramarital partners.</p>
<p>The findings across the three studies were consistent. In Study 1, participants reported they would spend more to maintain committed relationships than to initiate or maintain extramarital ones. This finding suggested that people prioritize their long-term relationships in terms of resource allocation, even in hypothetical situations.</p>
<p>In Study 2, the analysis of recalled gifts indicated no significant difference in spending between committed and extramarital relationships, meaning that people did not report receiving more expensive gifts in one relationship type over the other. This finding contradicted the stereotype that people spend more lavishly on affair partners and suggested that, in practice, gift-giving behaviors align more with reinforcing long-term commitment.</p>
<p>Finally, in Study 3, participants expected both men and women to spend more on gifts to maintain committed relationships than on extramarital ones. While there was a stereotype that men might spend more on affair partners than women would, this did not translate to an expectation that men would spend more on extramarital relationships overall compared to their spending on committed relationships.</p>
<p>“The main takeaway from this research is that stereotypes about men spending more lavishly on gifts for their partners in romantic relationships, and affair partners in particular, are not reflective of current gift-giving behaviors in the United States,” James and Williams told PsyPost. “Our findings suggest that both men and women would spend more on a gift for their romantic partner, as opposed to an affair partner, and that men and women indicated they would spend roughly the same amount on gifts. From a functional perspective, this suggests that gift giving may be used more as a strategy for promoting a long-lasting relationship, instead of as a method for initiating or maintaining an affair.”</p>
<p>“The results from all three experiments were surprising in that they were contrary to common stereotypes about gift-giving behaviors in romantic relationships. For example, contrary to previous research we find that men and women report a willingness to spend the same on gifts in their romantic relationships (rather than men spending more), and we do not find evidence that affair partners receive more expensive gifts than long-term partners.”</p>
<p>The researchers pointed out that gift-giving behavior might serve different purposes depending on the relationship. In a committed partnership, gift giving can act as a bond-strengthening activity, symbolizing long-term commitment and reinforcing the connection between partners. In contrast, gift giving in extramarital relationships may not carry the same weight, especially if the affair is not intended as a long-term bond. For this reason, people may feel less inclined to spend significant resources on an affair partner, where commitment is less of a factor.</p>
<p>But as with all research, there are some caveats.</p>
<p>“One caveat of our research is that spending more money on a gift is not indicative of the quality and meaning of the gift to the person in the relationship,” James and Williams noted. “It is possible that a $20 gift could be more meaningful to maintaining, or initiating, a relationship than a $500 gift. The present research was also not able to assess the cultural meaning behind gifts and how that can influence gift-giving behaviors for romantic partners and affair partners.”</p>
<p>“Additionally, the sample for the research consisted of straight, monogamous participants from the United States. There should be further consideration of applying the findings of this research to other countries, cultural values, belief systems, and relationship types.”</p>
<p>Looking forward, the researchers hope “to promote more research and discussion about the evolutionary underpinnings of gift-giving behaviors in romantic relationships. Future work may investigate the differences in gift-giving behaviors based on factors such as culture, sexual orientation, and relationship structure (e.g., monogamous or polyamorous).”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ebs0000369" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gift Giving in Inpair and Extrapair Relationships</a>,” was authored by Olivia M. James, Amanda C. Kim, Jessica D. Ayers, and Keelah E. G. Williams.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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