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<td><span style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size:20px;font-weight:bold;">PsyPost – Psychology News Daily Digest (Unofficial)</span></td>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/whats-the-difference-between-a-psychopath-and-a-sociopath-less-than-you-might-think/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">What’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? Less than you might think</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 25th 2024, 10:00</div>
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<p><p>Articles about badly behaved people and how to spot them are common. You don’t have to Google or scroll too much to find headlines such as <a href="https://psychologyeverywhere.com/articles/7-signs-your-boss-is-a-psychopath/">7 signs your boss is a psychopath</a> or <a href="https://www.elephantjournal.com/2022/08/how-to-avoid-the-sociopath-next-door-erica-leibrandt/">How to avoid the sociopath next door</a>.</p>
<p>You’ll often see the terms psychopath and sociopath used somewhat interchangeably. That applies to perhaps the most famous badly behaved fictional character of all – Hannibal Lecter, the cannibal serial killer from <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0102926/">The Silence of the Lambs</a>.</p>
<p>In the book on which the movie is based, Lecter is described as a “pure sociopath”. But in the movie, he’s described as a “pure psychopath”. Psychiatrists have diagnosed him with <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2002.56.1.100">something else</a> entirely.</p>
<p>So what’s the difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? As we’ll see, these terms have been used at different times in history,<br>
and relate to some overlapping concepts.</p>
<h2>What’s a psychopath?</h2>
<p>Psychopathy has been mentioned in the psychiatric literature <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:~:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">since the 1800s</a>. But the latest edition of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known colloquially as the DSM) <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">doesn’t list</a> it as a recognised clinical disorder.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/about-dsm/history-of-the-dsm#section_5">Since the 1950s</a>, labels have changed and terms such as “sociopathic personality disturbance” have been replaced with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546673/">antisocial personality disorder</a>, which is what we have today.</p>
<p>Someone with antisocial personality disorder has a persistent disregard for the rights of others. This includes breaking the law, repeated lying, impulsive behaviour, getting into fights, disregarding safety, irresponsible behaviours, and indifference to the consequences of their actions.</p>
<p>To add to the confusion, the section in the DSM on antisocial personality disorder mentions psychopathy (and sociopathy) traits. In other words, according to the DSM the traits are part of antisocial personality disorder but are not mental disorders themselves.</p>
<p>US psychiatrist <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-37736-001">Hervey Cleckley</a> provided the first formal description of psychopathy traits in his 1941 book <em><a href="https://gwern.net/doc/psychology/personality/psychopathy/1941-cleckley-maskofsanity.pdf">The Mask of Sanity</a></em>. He based his description on his clinical observations of nine male patients in a psychiatric hospital. He identified several key characteristics, including superficial charm, unreliability and a lack of remorse or shame.</p>
<p><a href="https://psych.ubc.ca/profile/robert-hare/">Canadian psychologist</a> Professor <a href="http://www.hare.org/">Robert Hare</a> refined these characteristics by emphasising interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics, in addition to the antisocial behaviours listed in the DSM.</p>
<p>When we draw together all these strands of evidence, we can say a psychopath manipulates others, shows superficial charm, is grandiose and is persistently deceptive. Emotional traits include a lack of emotion and empathy, indifference to the suffering of others, and not accepting responsibility for how their behaviour impacts others.</p>
<p>Finally, a psychopath is easily bored, sponges off others, lacks goals, and is persistently irresponsible in their actions.</p>
<h2>So how about a sociopath?</h2>
<p>The term sociopath first appeared <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:~:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">in the 1930s</a>, and was attributed to US psychologist George Partridge. He <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.85.6.1053?journalCode=ajp">emphasised</a> the societal consequences of behaviour that habitually violates the rights of others.</p>
<p>Academics and clinicians often used the terms sociopath and psychopath interchangeably. But some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/#:~:text=The%20term%20psychopathy%20comes%20from,which%20literally%20means%20suffering%20soul.">preferred the term sociopath</a> because they said the public sometimes confused the word psychopath with psychosis.</p>
<p>“Sociopathic personality disturbance” <a href="https://www.turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/dsm-1952.pdf">was the term</a> used in the first edition of the DSM in 1952. This aligned with the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/0306624X01453005">prevailing views</a> at the time that antisocial behaviours were largely the product of the <em>social</em> environment, and that behaviours were only judged as deviant if they broke <em>social</em>, legal, and/or cultural rules.</p>
<p>Some of these early descriptions of sociopathy are more aligned with what we now call antisocial personality disorder. Others relate to emotional characteristics similar to Cleckley’s 1941 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26618655/">definition</a> of a psychopath.</p>
<p>In short, different people had different ideas about sociopathy and, even today, sociopathy is less-well defined than psychopathy. So there is no single definition of sociopathy we can give you, even today. But in general, its antisocial behaviours can be similar to ones we see with psychopathy.</p>
<p>Over the decades, the term sociopathy fell out of favour. From the late 60s, psychiatrists used the term antisocial personality disorder instead.</p>
<h2>Born or made?</h2>
<p>Both “sociopathy” (what we now call antisocial personality disorder) and psychopathy have been associated with a wide range of developmental, biological and psychological causes.</p>
<p>For example, people with psychopathic traits have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/may/12/how-to-spot-a-murderers-brain">certain brain differences</a> especially <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-01001-014">in regions</a> associated with emotions, inhibition of behaviour and problem solving. They also appear to have differences associated with their <a href="https://www.psypost.org/psychopathic-women-exhibit-low-cardiac-defense-responses-study-finds/">nervous system</a>, including a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051123001345?via%3Dihub">reduced heart rate</a>.</p>
<p>However, sociopathy and its antisocial behaviours are a product of someone’s social environment, and tends to <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/19-1415-FinalReport.pdf">run in families</a>. These behaviours has been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801766/#:~:text=Childhood%20abuse%20is%20a%20risk,and%20psychopathic%20traits%20remain%20unclear">associated with</a> physical abuse and parental conflict.</p>
<h2>What are the consequences?</h2>
<p>Despite their fictional portrayals – such as Hannibal Lecter in Silence of the Lambs or Villanelle in the TV series <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7016936/">Killing Eve</a> – <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/making-evil/201902/what-we-get-wrong-about-psychopaths#:~:text=Most%20psychopaths%20are%20not%20offenders,extreme%20violence%20or%20serial%20killing.">not all people</a> with psychopathy or sociopathy traits are serial killers or are physically violent.</p>
<p>But psychopathy <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/">predicts</a> a wide range of harmful behaviours. In the criminal justice system, psychopathy is strongly linked with re-offending, particularly of a violent nature.</p>
<p>In the general population, psychopathy is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160252709000028?casa_token=5lSd35qRO7oAAAAA:CTu-KkDXxsoYEPvpceItex9go1Fn_YlfBQSW9O9_MwNEX6NxlZ23GRcWnS5YYV_kAig24E4Ahdj7">associated with</a> drug dependence, homelessness, and other personality disorders. Some research even showed psychopathy predicted <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250605/">failure to follow</a> COVID restrictions.</p>
<p>But sociopathy is less established as a key risk factor in identifying people at heightened risk of harm to others. And sociopathy is not a reliable indicator of future antisocial behaviour.</p>
<h2>In a nutshell</h2>
<p>Neither psychopathy nor sociopathy are classed as mental disorders in formal psychiatric diagnostic manuals. They are both personality traits that relate to antisocial behaviours and are associated with certain interpersonal, emotional and lifestyle characteristics.</p>
<p>Psychopathy is thought to have genetic, biological and psychological bases that places someone at greater risk of violating other people’s rights. But sociopathy is less clearly defined and its antisocial behaviours are the product of someone’s social environment.</p>
<p>Of the two, psychopathy has the greatest use in identifying someone who is most likely to cause damage to others.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226714/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-difference-between-a-psychopath-and-a-sociopath-less-than-you-might-think-226714">original article</a>.</em></p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-research-reveals-how-ones-own-personality-predicts-long-term-relationship-satisfaction/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">New psychology research reveals how one’s own personality predicts long-term relationship satisfaction</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 25th 2024, 08:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112887"><em>Personality & Individual Differences</em></a> found that relationship satisfaction over a nine-year period is primarily influenced by one’s own personality traits, with Neuroticism having a negative effect and Conscientiousness a positive effect, while partner traits had negligible impact.</p>
<p>Kathrin Bach and colleagues investigated the long-term relationship between personality traits, specifically the Big Five (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness), and relationship satisfaction, motivated by prior findings linking personality to satisfaction in romantic relationships.</p>
<p>Previous research has highlighted that both actor effects (one’s own personality) and partner effects (the influence of the partner’s personality) play roles, but actor effects tend to be stronger. While Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness have been shown to predict relationship satisfaction in cross-sectional studies, longitudinal data has been scarce, especially regarding long-term relationships.</p>
<p>The present study utilized data from the Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (Pairfam), a large-scale, 9-year longitudinal survey conducted in Germany. This dataset included three cohorts of individuals born between 1971 and 1993, with a total sample of 972 participants, or 486 heterosexual couples. The couples remained in relationships throughout the study period, providing a unique opportunity to assess the dynamics of personality and relationship satisfaction over time. The average age of male participants was 35, while for females, it was 32 at the start of the study.</p>
<p>Personality traits were measured using the short version of the Big Five Inventory (BFI-K) on a five-point Likert scale. Both partners rated their own personalities. Relationship satisfaction was measured using a single item drawn from the Relationship Assessment Scale, asking participants to rate their overall satisfaction with their relationship on a scale from 0 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied). These measures were collected annually from both partners over nine waves, allowing the researchers to capture relationship satisfaction as a dynamic construct over a long period.</p>
<p>The results revealed that an individual’s own personality traits, rather than their partner’s traits, were the primary predictors of long-term relationship satisfaction. Neuroticism was found to have a consistently negative impact on satisfaction for both men and women, with higher levels of this trait predicting lower relationship satisfaction over time.</p>
<p>For men, the effect size was smaller compared to women, but still significant. In contrast, Conscientiousness had a positive effect on relationship satisfaction for both genders, meaning that more conscientious individuals—those who are organized, responsible, and reliable—tended to report higher satisfaction in their romantic relationships over the nine-year span.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the researchers found no significant effects for Agreeableness, a trait that had previously been linked to relationship satisfaction in cross-sectional studies. Additionally, Extraversion showed an unexpected negative association with relationship satisfaction for women, but not for men, suggesting that more extraverted women may experience lower satisfaction in long-term relationships, a finding that the authors suggested could be due to changing social and family dynamics over time.</p>
<p>One limitation was the dropout rate over the nine-year period, which may have led to a bias toward more satisfied couples remaining in the study, potentially limiting the generalizability of findings.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112887">Relationship satisfaction and The Big Five – Utilizing longitudinal data covering 9 years</a>”, was authored by Kathrin Bach, Marco Koch, and Frank M. Spinath.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/psychedelic-drug-doi-activates-specific-brain-neurons-to-ease-anxiety/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Psychedelic drug DOI activates specific brain neurons to ease anxiety</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 25th 2024, 06:00</div>
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<p><p>In a new study published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(24)00640-8"><em>Neuron</em></a>, researchers uncovered how the little-known psychedelic drug DOI (2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine) can reduce anxiety by activating a specific group of neurons in the brain. In experiments conducted on mice and rats, the drug reduced anxiety-like behaviors by stimulating a set of neurons in the ventral hippocampus—a region associated with emotion and memory. These findings offer key insights into how psychedelics might influence the brain and could inform future treatments for anxiety.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted this study to explore the neural mechanisms through which psychedelics reduce anxiety, building on existing research that has shown the potential therapeutic effects of drugs like LSD and psilocybin. While previous studies indicated that serotonergic psychedelics could reduce anxiety, the specific brain circuits involved had not been clearly identified.</p>
<p>By focusing on DOI, a psychedelic known to bind strongly to serotonin receptors, the researchers aimed to pinpoint the exact brain regions and neuronal activity responsible for the drug’s anxiety-reducing effects. This work is particularly relevant because anxiety disorders are widespread and often difficult to treat, and understanding how psychedelics interact with the brain could lead to more effective therapies.</p>
<p>“The serotonergic system is known to be implicated in the regulation of mood-related disorders. The fact that psychedelics modulate this neurotransmitter system is really intriguing,” said study author Praachi Tiwari, a postdoctoral researcher at the Center for Psychedelics and Consciousness Research at Johns Hopkins University.</p>
<p>“There were hardly any studies that tried to understand the neural circuit underlying the mechanism of action of psychedelics in specific neuropsychiatric disorders. This piqued our interest, and we wanted to specifically understand whether the serotonergic psychedelic DOI, which has a high affinity for the serotonin-2A receptor (which seems to be involved in driving the hallucinogenic response of psychedelics), can affect anxiety-like behavior in rodents, and if so, then what is the underlying neural circuit through which this behavioral response is driven.”</p>
<p>To investigate how DOI affects anxiety-like behavior, the researchers conducted experiments on rats and mice. They first injected DOI into the animals and then observed their behavior using standard tests for anxiety, such as the elevated plus maze and open field test. These tests assess how much time the animals spend in open, potentially anxiety-inducing spaces, which provides an indication of their anxiety levels. The animals that received DOI showed reduced anxiety-like behavior, spending more time in the open arms of the maze or in the center of the open field, suggesting that the drug had a calming effect.</p>
<p>Next, Tiwari and her colleagues used a variety of techniques to understand the neural activity behind these behavioral changes. They specifically targeted the ventral hippocampus, a brain region that plays a key role in processing emotions and has been implicated in anxiety. To confirm the involvement of this brain region, they injected DOI directly into the ventral hippocampus and found that it reduced anxiety in the animals, much like when it was administered systemically. This pinpointed the ventral hippocampus as a key site of action for the drug.</p>
<p>The researchers wanted to go further and understand exactly which types of neurons in the ventral hippocampus were responsible for the drug’s effects. Using sophisticated methods, including electrophysiology and optogenetics, they found that DOI primarily activates a specific group of neurons called fast-spiking parvalbumin-positive interneurons. These interneurons are known to play a crucial role in controlling the activity of nearby neurons by inhibiting their firing. In this case, the activation of these inhibitory neurons by DOI likely quieted other neurons in the area, leading to reduced anxiety.</p>
<p>In addition to these findings, the researchers explored the role of a specific serotonin receptor, known as the serotonin-2A receptor, which is involved in the effects of many psychedelics. They discovered that this receptor is highly expressed in a particular type of neuron in the ventral hippocampus called fast-spiking interneurons. These interneurons play a key role in controlling the activity of other neurons in the region, helping to maintain balance in brain circuits.</p>
<p>To confirm the involvement of 5-HT2A receptors in the anxiety-reducing effects of DOI, the researchers used a two-part approach. First, they selectively blocked these receptors using a drug called MDL100907, which specifically targets and prevents serotonin-2A receptors from being activated. When the receptors were blocked, DOI no longer had its calming effect on the animals, showing that these receptors are essential for the drug’s ability to reduce anxiety.</p>
<p>Next, the researchers used a genetic technique to restore the serotonin-2A receptors in mice that had been genetically modified to lack them. By injecting a virus carrying the necessary genetic material directly into the ventral hippocampus, they were able to reactivate the 5-HT2A receptors specifically in the fast-spiking interneurons. When these receptors were restored, the calming effects of DOI were also reinstated, further proving the crucial role of these receptors in reducing anxiety.</p>
<p>One of the most intriguing aspects of the study is that the DOI-induced reduction in anxiety does not appear to be linked to the hallucinogenic effects often associated with psychedelics. Tiwari and her colleagues found that while DOI activated neurons in the ventral hippocampus, it did not trigger the head-twitch response, a behavioral marker in rodents associated with psychedelic-induced hallucinations. This suggests that the brain circuits involved in reducing anxiety are distinct from those that cause hallucinations, raising the possibility that future drugs could be designed to target anxiety without causing hallucinations.</p>
<p>“The main finding is that there seems to be a discrete neural circuit involved in the psychedelic-evoked decline in anxiety-like behavior acutely,” Tiwari told <em>PsyPost</em>. “This neural circuit does not seemingly overlap with the circuits that potentially drive the hallucinogenic-like response in rodents, or even the locomotion-related behavior. This allows for a better understanding of how potential therapeutic drugs can be designed to target specific aspects of behavioral response and gives fundamental insights into the functioning of the brain with respect to responses in anxiety-based task measures.”</p>
<p>Although the study provides valuable insights, it also has some limitations. For one, the research was conducted on animal models, so it remains unclear how directly these findings will translate to humans. While the ventral hippocampus in rodents is involved in emotional processing, human anxiety is more complex and involves multiple brain regions. Additionally, the study only looked at the acute effects of DOI, so it is unknown whether the drug’s anti-anxiety effects would persist with long-term use or how it might interact with chronic anxiety conditions.</p>
<p>“We cannot preclude the possibility that there may be other regions in the brain that act independently or in tandem with the ventral hippocampus to evoke a decline in anxiety-like response upon acute DOI action,” Tiwari noted. “We also cannot comment on the behavioral consequence of chronic DOI action on anxiety-like behavior. These are open questions, and need further investigation.”</p>
<p>Future research could explore whether the effects observed in this study are applicable to other psychedelics, such as LSD and psilocybin, which may act on different serotonin receptors or brain regions. Moreover, researchers are keen to investigate the potential for long-term therapeutic effects, especially in individuals with stress-related anxiety disorders.</p>
<p>Understanding how these drugs work in the brain could pave the way for developing new treatments that target specific neural circuits to reduce anxiety without the side effects associated with current therapies or psychedelic drugs.</p>
<p>“Psychedelics can prove to be a great tool to understand neural function, especially with respect to the serotonergic system,” Tiwari said. “If the questions are designed with great deliberation, it can be a very useful way to study specific states in the brain.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2024.08.016">Ventral hippocampal parvalbumin interneurons gate the acute anxiolytic action of the serotonergic psychedelic DOI</a>,” was authored by Praachi Tiwari, Pasha A. Davoudian, Darshana Kapri, Ratna Mahathi Vuruputuri, Lindsay A. Karaba, Mukund Sharma, Giulia Zanni, Angarika Balakrishnan, Pratik R. Chaudhari, Amartya Pradhan, Shital Suryavanshi, Kevin G. Bath, Mark S. Ansorge, Antonio Fernandez-Ruiz, Alex C. Kwan, and Vidita A. Vaidya.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/tentacle-like-brain-probes-offer-high-precision-long-term-neural-recording/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Tentacle-like brain probes offer high-precision, long-term neural recording</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 24th 2024, 18:00</div>
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<p><p>Researchers at ETH Zurich have developed ultra-flexible brain probes that can record brain activity over long periods without damaging the surrounding tissue. Published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49226-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>, the study demonstrates how these innovative electrodes could advance treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders by offering detailed, long-term monitoring of brain activity.</p>
<p>“Our electrodes are so fine that they can be threaded past the long processes that extend from the nerve cells in the brain,” said Mehmet Fatih Yanik, Professor of Neurotechnology at ETH Zurich, who led the research. “They are only around as thick as the nerve-cell processes themselves.”</p>
<p>The researchers conducted this study to overcome the limitations of existing brain-monitoring technologies. Traditional electrodes, used in devices like neurostimulators or “brain pacemakers,” are often rigid and too wide, posing risks of tissue damage when implanted. These devices are already used to treat conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, but their potential is limited by their inability to provide detailed and safe long-term recordings.</p>
<p>Yanik’s team sought to develop an alternative that could collect high-quality brain signals over extended periods, offering new opportunities for diagnosing and treating neurological conditions. “Our goal was to create electrodes that could record brain activity with great precision, but without causing inflammation or damage, as current technologies often do,” Yanik explained.</p>
<p>To achieve this, the team designed electrodes made from ultra-thin, flexible gold fibers encased in a polymer. The fibers, which are only as thick as the processes of nerve cells themselves, are much smaller than current electrode technologies. This delicate design minimizes the risk of damaging the brain when inserted. To further reduce any potential harm, the researchers developed a method to slowly insert the probes into the brain, allowing the fibers to weave through the tissue gently.</p>
<p>The researchers tested the new probes in rats, inserting bundles of 64 fibers into various brain regions. These fibers were connected to a small recording device mounted on each rat’s head, allowing the animals to move freely while their brain activity was monitored. The electrodes were then able to record signals from the same cells in the rats’ brains for up to 10 months without any noticeable damage to the brain tissue.</p>
<p>One of the most important findings from the study was that these new probes are biocompatible, meaning they do not interfere with normal brain function. In fact, the electrodes were able to record high-quality signals due to their proximity to nerve cells.</p>
<p>Over the 10-month experiment, the probes maintained their performance, providing consistent and detailed recordings from the same brain cells. This longevity is a major improvement over current technologies, which often see a decline in signal quality over time due to tissue damage or immune responses.</p>
<p>The flexibility of the electrodes also allowed the researchers to monitor different regions of the brain simultaneously. This is particularly important for understanding how different brain areas work together. In their experiments, the researchers tracked and analyzed nerve cell activity in several regions of the rats’ brains. They found that nerve cells in different regions were often “co-activated,” meaning they fired together. This large-scale, synchronized activity is believed to be essential for processing complex information and forming memories.</p>
<p>“The technology is of high interest for basic research that investigates these functions and their impairments in neurological and psychiatric disorders,” Yanik said.</p>
<p>Despite the promising results, the study does have limitations. Most notably, the testing has so far been limited to animals, and human trials are still in the planning stages. While the electrodes appear to be safe for long-term use in rats, it remains to be seen how they will perform in humans over extended periods. The long-term effects of the implants will need to be thoroughly evaluated, particularly in terms of whether they can continue to function without causing damage to human brain tissue.</p>
<p>Additionally, while the flexibility of the probes offers many advantages, it also poses challenges. For example, the fibers are so thin that inserting them into deeper brain regions in larger animals or humans may require even more advanced surgical techniques. The team is already working on refining the technology to address these challenges and improve the overall ease of use.</p>
<p>Looking ahead, the researchers are planning to test the electrodes in humans. They have partnered with University College London to use the new probes in epilepsy patients who do not respond to drug treatments. In these cases, neurosurgeons often remove a small section of the brain where seizures originate. The team hopes their probes will help pinpoint the exact location of the problematic brain tissue, improving the precision of these surgeries.</p>
<p>The potential applications of these probes extend beyond epilepsy. The electrodes could also be used to treat psychiatric disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Many of these conditions are associated with abnormal brain activity in specific regions. By detecting these abnormal signals early, it may be possible to correct them using electrical stimulation.</p>
<p>“This could aid the development of more effective therapies for people with neurological and psychiatric disorders,” said Yanik.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49226-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Months-long tracking of neuronal ensembles spanning multiple brain areas with Ultra-Flexible Tentacle Electrodes</a>,” was authored by Tansel Baran Yasar, Peter Gombkoto, Alexei L. Vyssotski, Angeliki D. Vavladeli, Christopher M. Lewis, Bifeng Wu, Linus Meienberg, Valter Lundegardh, Fritjof Helmchen, Wolfger von der Behrens , and Mehmet Fatih Yanik.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/higher-triglyceride-glucose-index-linked-to-75-higher-risk-of-cognitive-decline/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Higher triglyceride glucose index linked to increased risk of cognitive decline</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 24th 2024, 16:00</div>
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<p><p>A recent meta-analysis published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.049"><em>Journal of Affective Disorders</em></a> revealed that individuals with a higher triglyceride glucose (TyG) index face an increased risk of cognitive decline.</p>
<p>Cognitive decline, a precursor to conditions such as dementia, affects millions worldwide, with its prevalence rising, particularly among older populations. Previous research has linked insulin resistance (IR) to cognitive impairment, but the mechanisms and surrogate markers remain under exploration.</p>
<p>The TyG index, a simpler and cost-effective surrogate for measuring insulin resistance compared to the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR), has been examined for its association with various health outcomes. In light of the mixed findings regarding its connection with cognitive decline, Yuqin Liu and colleagues clarified this relationship through a comprehensive meta-analysis.</p>
<p>The researchers conducted a systematic search of several major databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Medline, for studies published up until October 2023. They specifically sought out studies that reported on the relationship between the TyG index and cognitive decline in humans.</p>
<p>Inclusion criteria required that studies used a validated method to calculate the TyG index from fasting triglycerides and blood glucose levels, measured cognitive decline using reliable neuropsychological assessments, and presented statistical data on this association. Studies were limited to those written in English, and those involving human subjects. Studies that did not meet these criteria, such as duplicates, reviews, or conference abstracts, were excluded from the analysis.</p>
<p>The final meta-analysis included 12 studies, consisting of 3 cohort studies and 9 case-control or cross-sectional studies. The cohort studies involved over 5.5 million individuals, while the case-control and cross-sectional studies included approximately 13,358 participants. The studies spanned various populations, ages, and regions, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the TyG index’s role in cognitive health.</p>
<p>The meta-analysis revealed a strong association between higher TyG index levels and an increased risk of cognitive decline. Individuals with elevated TyG levels were 14% more likely to experience cognitive decline in cohort studies, while in case-control and cross-sectional studies, this risk increased by 75%. Additionally, a dose-response relationship was observed, with a 42% higher risk of cognitive decline for each unit increase in the TyG index, emphasizing the cumulative impact of insulin resistance on cognitive health.</p>
<p>Subgroup analyses showed that men were more affected by elevated TyG levels, facing a 13% higher risk of cognitive decline compared to women. In Asian populations, the risk was even greater, with an 88% higher likelihood of cognitive decline among individuals with elevated TyG levels. Younger individuals, particularly those under 60, showed a 43% higher risk, while the association was less clear in older adults, likely due to other age-related factors.</p>
<p>These findings suggest that the TyG index is a valuable marker for predicting cognitive impairment, especially in younger adults and certain sub-group populations.</p>
<p>The presence of heterogeneity across studies, likely due to varying participant demographics and study designs, was a limitation to this work.</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.049">Association between Triglyceride Glucose Index and Cognitive Decline: A Meta-Analysis</a>”, was authored by Yuqin Liu, Xingxiang Yang, Jie Gao, Chenqi Xie, Chunyan Tian, and Tianlin Gao.</p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/why-we-love-to-be-scared-the-psychology-behind-haunted-houses-and-horror-films/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Why we love to be scared: The psychology behind haunted houses and horror films</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 24th 2024, 14:00</div>
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<p><p>Fall for me as a teenager meant football games, homecoming dresses – and haunted houses. My friends organized group trips to the local fairground, where barn sheds were turned into halls of horror, and masked men nipped at our ankles with (chainless) chain saws as we waited in line, anticipating deeper frights to come once we were inside.</p>
<p>I’m not the only one who loves a good scare. Halloween attractions company <a href="https://www.americahaunts.com/ah/facts/">America Haunts</a> estimates Americans are spending upward of US$500 million annually on haunted house entrance fees simply for the privilege of being frightened. And lots of fright fans don’t limit their horror entertainment to spooky season, gorging horror movies, shows and books all year long.</p>
<p>To some people, this preoccupation with horror can seem tone deaf. School shootings, child abuse, war – the list of real-life horrors is endless. Why seek manufactured fear for entertainment when the world offers real terror in such large quantities?</p>
<p>As a developmental psychologist who writes dark thrillers on the side, I find the intersection of psychology and fear intriguing. To explain what drives this fascination with fear, I point to the theory that emotions evolved as a universal experience in humans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379140">because they help us survive</a>. Creating fear in otherwise safe lives can be enjoyable – and is a way for people to practice and prepare for real-life dangers.</p>
<h2>Fear can feel good</h2>
<p>Controlled fear experiences – where you can click your remote, close the book, or walk out of the haunted house whenever you want – offer the physiological high that fear triggers, without any real risk.</p>
<p>When you perceive yourself under threat, adrenaline surges in your body and the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregory-Sullivan-3/publication/232505429_The_neurobiology_of_stress_and_anxiety/links/565b4cc408aefe619b243a50/The-neurobiology-of-stress-and-anxiety.pdf">evolutionary fight-or-flight response is activated</a>. Your heart rate increases, you breathe deeper and faster, and your blood pressure goes up. <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response">Your body is preparing</a> to defend itself against the danger or get away as fast as possible.</p>
<p>This physical reaction is crucial when facing a real threat. When experiencing controlled fear – like jump scares in a zombie TV show – you get to enjoy this energized sensation, similar to a runner’s high, without any risks. And then, once the threat is dealt with, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2516">your body releases the neurotransmitter dopamine</a>, which provides sensations of pleasure and relief.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000470">In one study</a>, researchers found that people who visited a high-intensity haunted house as a controlled fear experience displayed less brain activity in response to stimuli and less anxiety post-exposure. This finding suggests that exposing yourself to horror films, scary stories or suspenseful video games can actually calm you afterward. The effect might also explain why my husband and I choose to relax by watching zombie shows after a busy day at work.</p>
<h2>The ties that bind</h2>
<p>An essential motivation for human beings is the sense of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sense-of-belonging/202202/the-science-behind-our-need-to-belong">belonging to a social group</a>. According to the surgeon general, Americans who miss those connections are caught up in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37792968/">an epidemic of loneliness</a>, which leaves people <a href="https://theconversation.com/curing-americas-loneliness-epidemic-would-make-us-healthier-fitter-and-less-likely-to-abuse-drugs-206059">at risk for mental and physical health issues</a>.</p>
<p>Going through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611431576">intense fear experiences together strengthens the bonds</a> between individuals. Good examples include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1988.11024391">veterans who served together in combat</a>, survivors of natural disasters, and the “families” created in groups of first responders.</p>
<p>I’m a volunteer firefighter, and the unique connection created through sharing intense threats, such as entering a burning building together, manifests in deep emotional bonds with my colleagues. After a significant fire call, we often note the improved morale and camaraderie of the firehouse. I feel a flood of positive emotions anytime I think of my firefighting partners, even when the events occurred months or years ago.</p>
<p>Controlled fear experiences artificially create similar opportunities for bonding. Exposure to stress triggers not only the fight-or-flight response, but in many situations it also initiates what psychologists call the “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0QuyCwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA32&dq=Tend+and+Befriend+Theory+Shelley+Taylor&ots=-hCmLEr1jH&sig=CfC_AT-MLhMnX5sI4_PuKvnBDms#v=onepage&q=Tend%20and%20Befriend%20Theory%20Shelley%20Taylor&f=false">tend-and-befriend” system</a>. A perceived threat prompts humans to tend to offspring and create social-emotional bonds for protection and comfort. This system is largely regulated by the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/better/health/fondness-fear-why-do-we-be-scared-ncna812661">so-called “love hormone” oxytocin</a>.</p>
<p>The tend-and-befriend reaction is particularly likely when you experience stress around others with whom you have already established positive social connections. When you encounter stressors within your social network, your oxytocin levels rise to initiate social coping strategies. As a result, when you navigate a recreational fear experience like a haunted house with friends, you are setting the emotional stage to feel bonded with the people beside you.</p>
<p>Sitting in the dark with friends while you watch a scary movie or navigating a haunted corn maze with a date is good for your health, in that it helps you strengthen those social connections.</p>
<h2>An ounce of prevention = a pound of cure</h2>
<p>Controlled fear experiences can also be a way for you to prepare for the worst. Think of the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, when the films “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1598778/">Contagion</a>” and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114069/">Outbreak</a>” <a href="https://netec.org/2023/07/31/exploring-the-parallels-between-reality-and-film-outbreak-contagion-the-covid-19-pandemic/">trended on streaming platforms</a> as people around the world sheltered at home. By watching threat scenarios play out in controlled ways through media, you can learn about your fears and emotionally prepare for future threats.</p>
<p>For example, researchers at Aarhus University’s <a href="https://cc.au.dk/en/recreational-fear-lab">Recreational Fear Lab</a> in Denmark demonstrated in one study that people who regularly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110397">consumed horror media were more psychologically resilient</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic than nonhorror fans. The scientists suggest that this resilience might be a result of a kind of training these fans went through – they practiced coping with the fear and anxiety provoked by their preferred form of entertainment. As a result, they were better prepared to manage the real fear triggered by the pandemic.</p>
<p>When I’m not teaching, I’m an avid reader of crime fiction. I also write psychological thrillers under the pen name Sarah K. Stephens. As both a reader and writer, I notice similar themes in the books I am drawn to, all of which tie into my own deep-rooted fears: mothers who fail their children somehow, women manipulated into subservience, lots of misogynist antagonists.</p>
<p>I enjoy writing and reading about my fears – and seeing the bad guys get their just desserts in the end – because it offers a way for me to control the story. Consuming these narratives lets me mentally rehearse how I would handle these kinds of circumstances if any were to manifest in my real life.</p>
<h2>Survive and thrive</h2>
<p>In the case of controlled fear experiences, scaring yourself is a pivotal technique to help you survive and adapt in a frightening world. By eliciting powerful, positive emotions, strengthening social networks and preparing you for your worst fears, you’re better able to embrace each day to its fullest.</p>
<p>So the next time you’re choosing between an upbeat comedy and a creepy thriller for your movie night, pick the dark side – it’s good for your health.<!-- Below is The Conversation's page counter tag. Please DO NOT REMOVE. --><img decoding="async" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/240292/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1"><!-- End of code. If you don't see any code above, please get new code from the Advanced tab after you click the republish button. The page counter does not collect any personal data. More info: https://theconversation.com/republishing-guidelines --></p>
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<p><em>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-people-love-to-scare-themselves-in-an-already-scary-world-heres-the-psychology-of-why-240292">original article</a>.</em></p></p>
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<td><a href="https://www.psypost.org/study-offers-surprising-insights-into-republicans-support-for-gun-control/" style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; letter-spacing:-1px;margin:0;padding:0 0 2px;font-weight: bold;font-size: 19px;line-height: 20px;color:#222;">Study offers surprising insights into Republicans’ support for gun control</a>
<div style="font-family:Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align:left;color:#999;font-size:11px;font-weight:bold;line-height:15px;">Oct 24th 2024, 12:00</div>
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<p><p>Trust in the federal government plays a key role in shaping Republicans’ attitudes toward gun control, according to a new study published in <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-023-09907-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Political Behavior</a></em>. The findings indicate that Republicans who trust the government are much more likely to back gun control reforms. Notably, the research also highlights that partisanship is a stronger influence than political ideology when it comes to shaping Americans’ views on gun control policies, suggesting that attitudes toward gun reform are more driven by party loyalty and cues from political leaders than by deeply held ideological beliefs.</p>
<p>Gun violence in the United States is a major public health and safety concern, with the country experiencing far higher rates of firearm-related deaths, injuries, and mass shootings compared to other developed nations. This issue spans various forms of violence, including homicides, suicides, accidental shootings, and domestic violence incidents.</p>
<p>Mass shootings, particularly in schools, public spaces, and workplaces, have intensified demands for reforms such as universal background checks, bans on assault weapons, and enhanced mental health services. However, legal frameworks like the Second Amendment, which protects the right to bear arms, have fueled polarized debates. While some advocate for stricter gun regulations to curb violence, others emphasize individual freedoms and the right to self-defense.</p>
<p>Previous research has consistently shown that Democrats tend to support gun control measures more strongly than Republicans, who are generally more inclined to expand gun rights. However, the new study sought to examine whether trust in the government influences these partisan divides, particularly since Republicans are often more skeptical of government intervention.</p>
<p>“We became interested topic because of the ongoing debates in the United States about gun reform, which often appear highly polarized along partisan lines,” said study author <a href="https://michaelhansenpolitics.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Michael A. Hansen</a>, an associate professor of political science at the University of Turku and co-author of <em><a href="https://amzn.to/40hwJXA" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Political Entrepreneurship in the Age of Dealignment</a></em>.</p>
<p>“We wanted to explore whether trust in the federal government affects support for gun reform differently among Republicans and Democrats, whether that relationship was different than between trust and political ideology, and what this could mean for advancing gun control policies.”</p>
<p>To investigate this question, the researchers used data from the 2022 Cooperative Election Study, a large national survey administered by YouGov. The study included responses from over 50,000 Americans, surveyed before and after the 2022 U.S. midterm elections.</p>
<p>Participants were asked about their support for various gun control and gun rights expansion proposals. Three gun control measures were examined: banning assault rifles, providing federal funding to remove guns from individuals who may pose a threat, and improving background checks for prospective gun buyers under the age of 21. The three gun rights expansion proposals included prohibiting the publication of gun owners’ names and addresses, making it easier to obtain concealed-carry permits, and allowing teachers to carry guns in schools.</p>
<p>Respondents also answered questions about their level of trust in the federal government, which was measured on a four-point scale ranging from “no trust at all” to “a great deal of trust.” Additionally, participants were asked about their partisan identification (whether they identified as Democrats, Republicans, or Independents) and their political ideology (measured on a scale from very liberal to very conservative). The researchers then used statistical models to examine how trust in the government and partisan identification interacted to influence support for gun reforms.</p>
<p>The findings of the study revealed stark differences between Republicans and Democrats in how trust in the federal government affected their views on gun reform. For Republicans, trust in the government had a dramatic impact on their support for both gun control and gun rights expansion. Republicans with low trust in the government were much more likely to oppose gun control measures and support expanding gun rights.</p>
<p>However, as trust in the government increased, Republicans became significantly more likely to support gun control proposals and less likely to favor expanding gun rights. For instance, a Republican with no trust in the government had a predicted probability of only 20% for supporting an assault rifle ban, while a Republican with a high level of trust had a 70% probability of supporting such a ban.</p>
<p>“Trust in the federal government plays a critical role in shaping Republicans’ attitudes toward gun reform,” Hansen told PsyPost. “Our study found that as Republicans’ trust in the government increases, so does their support for gun control measures, such as banning assault rifles or improving background checks, while their support for gun rights expansions decreases. These findings suggest that efforts to build trust in government institutions could influence gun policy attitudes, particularly among Republicans.”</p>
<p>In contrast, trust in the federal government had almost no effect on Democrats’ views toward gun reform. Democrats consistently supported gun control measures, such as banning assault rifles and improving background checks, regardless of their level of trust in the government. This suggests that Democrats’ views on gun reform are less influenced by their attitudes toward the government and more driven by other factors, such as their party’s platform or personal beliefs about gun violence.</p>
<p>The researchers also tested whether political ideology (how liberal or conservative a person is) played a role in shaping views on gun reform, but they found that partisanship was a much stronger predictor than ideology. While political ideology was still related to views on gun reform, it had a smaller impact than whether a person identified as a Democrat or Republican. This finding supports the idea that gun reform is primarily a partisan issue, shaped by party affiliation and the cues individuals receive from political leaders and organizations.</p>
<p>“What surprised us the most was how little political ideology influenced attitudes toward gun reform,” Hansen said. “While ideology is often assumed to be a major driver of opinions on such issues, our findings showed that it played a relatively minor role. Instead, trust in the federal government was a much more substantial predictor, particularly among Republicans.”</p>
<p>“The result suggests that if partisan messengers, such as political leaders or influential figures within the Republican party, shift their stance on gun reform, it could lead to broader changes in public attitudes. By focusing on changing the attitudes of these partisan messengers, there may be a pathway to increasing support for gun control measures like banning assault rifles or improving background checks.”</p>
<p>But as with all research, there are some caveats. “One caveat is that our study relies on one year of survey data, which captures public sentiment at a specific point in time,” Hansen noted. “Trust in government can fluctuate due to political events, so the results may vary in different contexts. Additionally, our analysis focuses on six gun reform proposals, and future research should explore more nuanced reform suggestions.”</p>
<p>Nevertheless, the findings from this study have important implications for policymakers and advocates working to pass gun reform legislation.</p>
<p>“The findings suggest that advocates of gun reform should consider not just the policies they are promoting but also how they frame these issues in relation to trust in government,” Hansen explained. “Building institutional trust might be a key strategy for gaining broader support for reforms, particularly from groups that are typically more resistant to gun control.”</p>
<p>The study, “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-023-09907-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Support for Gun Reform in the United States: The Interactive Relationship Between Partisanship and Trust in the Federal Government</a>,” was authored by Michael A. Hansen and Mila Seppälä.</p></p>
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<p><strong>Forwarded by:<br />
Michael Reeder LCPC<br />
Baltimore, MD</strong></p>
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