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(https://www.psypost.org/a-single-dose-of-psilocybin-might-help-reduce-symptoms-in-treatment-resistant-depression/) A single dose of psilocybin might help reduce symptoms in treatment-resistant depression
May 12th 2025, 10:00

An open-label study of 12 individuals with severe treatment-resistant depression found that their symptoms significantly decreased three weeks after taking a single dose of psilocybin. These improvements persisted through the 12-week follow-up period. However, participants who also had posttraumatic stress disorder tended to experience less benefit. The research was published in the (https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20231063) American Journal of Psychiatry.
Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound found in certain species of mushrooms, commonly referred to as “magic mushrooms.” In the body, psilocybin is converted into psilocin, which binds to serotonin receptors in the brain. This interaction produces altered perceptions, shifts in mood, and changes in consciousness.
Historically, psilocybin has been used in spiritual and ceremonial practices for centuries. In recent years, it has attracted growing scientific interest due to its potential to treat mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and addiction. Clinical studies suggest that psilocybin can promote lasting emotional insight and symptom relief after just one or two guided sessions. Although considered physiologically safe in controlled settings, it can sometimes cause acute psychological distress. Legal status varies worldwide, but interest in therapeutic use and decriminalization is expanding rapidly.
Study author Scott T. Aaronson and his colleagues sought to examine the effects of a single dose of synthetic psilocybin, administered with psychological support, in individuals with severe treatment-resistant depression. This form of major depressive disorder is defined by failure to respond to multiple adequate antidepressant trials. In this study, all participants had failed to improve with at least five different treatments in their current depressive episode.
Up to 55% of people treated for depression may meet criteria for treatment resistance, making it a major public health concern and a high priority for research into new therapies.
The final sample included 12 patients selected from 205 individuals who were screened. There were equal numbers of men and women, and the average age was approximately 41 years. Five participants had a comorbid diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder.
Each participant received a single oral dose of 25 milligrams of synthetic psilocybin (COMP360) and was monitored for 12 weeks. Depression severity was assessed using the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, a clinician-administered measure. Assessments were conducted at baseline, and then again at 1, 3, and 12 weeks post-treatment. Participants also completed self-report measures of quality of life (the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire–Short Form) and anxiety symptoms (the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale).
Results showed a sharp reduction in depression symptoms one week after dosing. While symptoms slightly increased again by week 3, they remained significantly lower than at baseline. By week 12, scores had decreased again slightly compared to week 3, particularly according to clinician ratings.
Most participants showed a marked decrease in symptoms. However, a few individuals had smaller improvements, and in some cases, symptoms returned to near-baseline levels. Those with comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder tended to show less reduction in depression symptoms across time.
“As an initial foray into psilocybin treatment for patients with MDD (major depressive disorder) that is difficult-to-treat, this study provided an early indication of safety, tolerability, and promising potential efficacy. An unexplored question concerns the durability of the antidepressant effect beyond 12 weeks and whether durability can be extended with additional dosing,” the study authors concluded.
The findings add to a growing body of research suggesting that psilocybin could be a valuable tool for addressing hard-to-treat depression. However, the study had several important limitations. It was open-label, meaning there was no control or placebo group, and both researchers and participants knew that psilocybin was being administered. This increases the potential for expectancy effects and placebo responses.
Moreover, although clinician-rated scales were used, all results ultimately relied on subjective reporting, either by participants or the clinicians evaluating them. This leaves the data vulnerable to biases such as the Hawthorne effect, where individuals alter their behavior because they know they are being studied.
Without a control group, it’s also impossible to determine how much of the observed improvement was due to the psilocybin itself, rather than natural fluctuations in mood, psychological support, or other external factors.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20231063) Single-Dose Psilocybin for Depression With Severe Treatment Resistance: An Open-Label Trial,” was authored by Scott T. Aaronson, Andrew van der Vaart, Tammy Miller, Jeffrey LaPratt, Kimberly Swartz, Audrey Shoultz, Margo Lauterbach, Trisha Suppes, and Harold A. Sackeim.

(https://www.psypost.org/abnormal-brain-rhythms-may-offer-new-insight-into-alzheimers-disease-and-its-link-to-epilepsy/) Abnormal brain rhythms may offer new insight into Alzheimer’s disease and its link to epilepsy
May 12th 2025, 08:00

A new study published in (https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/article/7/1/fcaf041/8009393) Brain Communications has uncovered abnormal brain wave activity in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting a potential new biomarker for tracking the condition and its related symptoms. Researchers detected a specific type of fast brain rhythm known as high-frequency oscillations in Alzheimer’s patients—even in those who did not show obvious signs of epilepsy. These oscillations were more pronounced in patients with subclinical epileptic activity, and their levels responded differently to an anti-seizure medication depending on the presence or absence of epilepsy.
Alzheimer’s disease is primarily known for its impact on memory and cognition, but many people with the condition also experience seizures or abnormal electrical activity in the brain. These disturbances may go unnoticed without specialized testing, yet they are believed to worsen memory loss and accelerate cognitive decline. Researchers have long sought reliable indicators of this hidden hyperactivity, especially ones that could guide treatment decisions.
One promising candidate is the presence of high-frequency oscillations, or HFOs—brief, rapid bursts of electrical activity in the brain that have previously been linked to epilepsy. Although high-frequency oscillations have been studied in people with drug-resistant epilepsy, they had not been observed in people with Alzheimer’s disease until now. In this study, the researchers wanted to find out whether high-frequency oscillations could be detected in Alzheimer’s patients using non-invasive brain scans and whether these signals varied depending on the presence of epileptic activity.
“My epilepsy colleagues at UCLA discovered high-frequency oscillations as a sign of epilepsy in animal models of epilepsy and in brain recordings from human epilepsy patients. Based on my research into epilepsy and associated cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease, we wanted to know if high-frequency oscillations are present,” said study author (https://vossellab.dgsom.ucla.edu/) Keith Vossel, a professor of neurology and director of Alzheimer’s research programs at UCLA.
The researchers used magnetoencephalography (MEG), a technique that records magnetic signals generated by brain activity. They analyzed 10-minute MEG recordings from three groups of participants: eight people with Alzheimer’s disease and subclinical epileptic activity, six with Alzheimer’s disease but no detectable epileptic activity, and eight healthy individuals.
All participants with Alzheimer’s disease were part of a larger clinical trial testing the effects of the anti-seizure drug levetiracetam on cognitive function. MEG data were collected before and after a four-week course of the drug, separated by a washout period, allowing each person to serve as their own control.
The research team focused on two types of high-frequency oscillations: ripples (between 80 and 250 Hz) and fast ripples (between 250 and 500 Hz). These fast rhythms were measured across multiple brain regions in both the left and right hemispheres. To identify and classify high-frequency oscillations, the researchers used a specialized software algorithm followed by manual validation to ensure accuracy. They also tracked whether the brain waves were more prominent in one hemisphere than the other—a pattern that might signal underlying pathology.
The results showed that participants with Alzheimer’s disease had more high-frequency oscillations than healthy controls across many brain areas, especially in the right temporal and occipital lobes. Surprisingly, those without any signs of epileptic activity had even more high-frequency oscillations in some regions than those with epileptic activity. This finding suggests that high-frequency oscillations might not only reflect seizure risk but could also point to broader forms of brain hyperexcitability linked to Alzheimer’s itself.
When the team compared the effects of levetiracetam on brain activity, they found notable differences between the two Alzheimer’s subgroups. In patients with epileptic activity, levetiracetam reduced high-frequency oscillations in several brain regions, particularly in the frontal and occipital lobes. This suggests that the drug helped calm overactive brain networks that may be tied to silent seizures. In contrast, in patients without detectable epileptic activity, levetiracetam unexpectedly increased the rate of high-frequency oscillations in areas like the parietal and central regions.
“Brain rhythm abnormalities are a common feature of dementia, but they have not been explored thoroughly,” Vossel told PsyPost. “We found that high-frequency oscillations are increased in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients, which indicates over-excitation of neurons. In Alzheimer’s patients with epileptic activity, antiseizure medications reduced high-frequency oscillations and were associated with cognitive improvements, showing a potential therapeutic benefit.”
The researchers also observed asymmetry in the distribution of high-frequency oscillations. In patients with epileptic activity, high-frequency oscillations were more concentrated in the right hemisphere, especially in the temporal and occipital lobes. This pattern was not seen in patients without epileptic activity, further indicating that asymmetric high-frequency oscillations might be a signature of epilepsy-related hyperexcitability in Alzheimer’s disease.
“We were surprised to see increased high-frequency oscillations in Alzheimer’s patients who had no history of epilepsy or epileptic activity,” Vossel said. “This indicates that high-frequency oscillations are a general feature of Alzheimer’s disease. However, high-frequency oscillations were more asymmetric in Alzheimer’s patients with epileptic activity and appear to be more pathological when occurring on one side of the brain.”
These findings are consistent with previous research in animal models showing increased high-frequency oscillations in Alzheimer’s and epilepsy. However, the current study is the first to report these fast brain rhythms in Alzheimer’s patients using non-invasive MEG scans. The presence of high-frequency oscillations, particularly when unevenly distributed across the brain, may provide an important window into disease progression and treatment response.
While the results are promising, the study does have some limitations. The control group was older than the Alzheimer’s group, which could affect comparisons. Also, the MEG data were sometimes noisy, and the sample size was relatively small. The study focused only on white, non-Hispanic participants, so the findings may not apply to more diverse populations. Longer and more detailed recordings may help future studies better understand how high-frequency oscillations change across sleep and waking states and how they relate to different types of Alzheimer’s pathology.
“MEG recordings are a sensitive method to detect brain rhythm abnormalities in dementia, but can only detect high-frequency oscillations produced by large populations of neurons,” Vossel noted. “As a result, MEG may miss high-frequency oscillations arising from small, localized brain regions.”
This research adds to a growing body of evidence that abnormal electrical activity plays a larger role in Alzheimer’s disease than previously recognized. Identifying high-frequency oscillations as a potential biomarker opens up new avenues for diagnosing and managing the disease. The fact that levetiracetam reduced high-frequency oscillations in patients with subclinical seizures but increased them in others suggests that treatments might need to be tailored depending on the individual’s brain activity patterns.
Future research could explore whether high-frequency oscillations appear in the early stages of Alzheimer’s or in other neurodegenerative conditions. Combining MEG with other imaging techniques, like intracranial recordings or advanced brain scans, might offer a clearer picture of where and how these brain waves arise. Understanding the specific neural circuits involved in generating high-frequency oscillations may also help clarify their role in memory, attention, and cognitive decline.
“We are exploring other features from MEG recordings to enable more efficient, cost-effective tools to identify and treat epilepsy in Alzheimer’s disease,” Vossel added. “We are deeply grateful to the many research participants for their generous time and effort. As research into brain rhythm abnormalities in dementia advances, we believe brain rhythm recordings will play an increasingly valuable role in dementia evaluations – much like how extended heart recordings are routinely used to assess cardiac function.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcaf041) High-frequency oscillations in epileptic and non-epileptic Alzheimer’s disease patients and the differential effect of levetiracetam on the oscillations,” was authored by M. C. Vishnu Shandilya, Kwaku Addo-Osafo, Kamalini G. Ranasinghe, Mohamad Shamas, Richard Staba, Srikantan S. Nagarajan, and Keith Vossel

(https://www.psypost.org/left-wing-authoritarians-are-less-likely-to-support-physically-strong-men-as-leaders/) Left-wing authoritarians are less likely to support physically strong men as leaders
May 12th 2025, 06:00

People with strong left-wing authoritarian beliefs are less likely to support physically strong men as leaders, while conservatives are more likely to prefer them—especially conservative men. These findings, published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113256) Personality and Individual Differences, suggest that our political values shape how we judge others’ leadership potential based on physical appearance.
Throughout history, physical strength has served as a signal of dominance and leadership ability, particularly among men. Stronger men may have been more successful in acquiring resources or enforcing group norms. These traits, while less directly relevant in modern society, still appear to shape how people think about leadership. This study aimed to explore whether people’s political beliefs influence their preferences for leaders based on their physical formidability, especially upper body strength.
Previous research shows that conservatives are more likely to prefer dominant-looking leaders. One reason for this may be an evolutionary tendency to favor strong group members who can enforce hierarchies or defend against threats. In contrast, people with more liberal views—especially those who value equality and oppose rigid hierarchies—may prefer leaders who signal cooperation rather than dominance. This idea is especially relevant to the emerging concept of left-wing authoritarianism, which, like its right-wing counterpart, favors strong social control but in pursuit of progressive goals.
“I have been broadly interested in understanding the interplay between politics and physical strength for years based on discussions of how men’s relative bargaining power may shape their interest in social policies that may or may not favor their preferred resource acquisition strategies,” explained study author Mitch Brown, an instructor of psychological science at University of Arkansas and director of the (https://spherelabar.weebly.com/) Social Perception and Human Evolution Research Lab.
“Namely, physical strength is associated with an interest in conservative politics ostensibly based on strong men’s ability to win in competitions that could lead them to favor social rules that emphasize such strategies. I managed to start considering this association from the perspective how politics interplay with social perception and how evolved processes may shape how people perceive evolutionarily relevant features; perceivers stereotype strong men as more conservative.” 
“With a growing interest in understanding authoritarianism across the political spectrum, I was interested in understanding whether left-wing authoritarianism may lead to an opposition to strong men whom they view as having interests in social policies that do not align with a socially rigid equalitarian orientation.”
For their study, the researchers recruited 310 undergraduate students from a university in the southeastern United States. The majority were White women, with an average age of about 19. Participants were asked to rate a series of images depicting men with either strong or weak upper body builds. These images came from a standardized set in which the same male faces were paired with either a strong or weak body to isolate the effect of muscularity.
Participants rated each image on how physically strong the person appeared, how politically conservative they seemed, and how likely they would be to vote for that person if he were running for president. They also completed a questionnaire measuring their own political orientation and their endorsement of (https://www.psypost.org/large-study-indicates-left-wing-authoritarianism-exists-and-is-a-key-predictor-of-psychological-and-behavioral-outcomes/) left-wing authoritarianism. This included agreement with statements supporting aggressive anti-hierarchy actions, rejection of traditional social norms, and support for censorship of opposing views. (For example, “The rich should be stripped of their belongings and status,” “The ‘old-fashioned ways’ and ‘old-fashioned values’ need to be abolished,” and “I should have the right not to be exposed to offensive views.”)
As expected, participants perceived stronger men as more conservative and were more likely to support them as leaders than weaker men. However, political ideology shaped these preferences. Participants who scored high in left-wing authoritarianism were less likely to prefer strong men as leaders. In contrast, more conservative participants were more likely to support strong men—especially if they themselves were men.
The study found no significant sex difference in the relationship between left-wing authoritarianism and leadership preferences. Both men and women with higher left-wing authoritarian beliefs tended to reject physically strong men as potential leaders. This supports the idea that people with strong anti-hierarchy views may view physically dominant individuals as symbolic of the social structures they want to dismantle.
In contrast, sex did play a role in how conservatism influenced preferences. Conservative men were especially likely to prefer strong men as leaders, compared to conservative women. This finding may reflect men’s stronger identification with traditionally masculine traits like physical strength or their perception of strong men as reliable allies in competitive environments. While conservative women also preferred strong leaders, the effect was less pronounced—possibly because women may be more aware of the risks posed by physical dominance, particularly in mixed-gender settings.
“Left-wing authoritarians report disinterest in physically strong men as leaders, an aversion that happens across both sexes,” Brown told PsyPost. “Conversely, conservatism is associated with an interest in strong men as leaders; this preference is stronger for men than it is for women. These preferences could be based on inferences of strong men’s political orientation and through expectations of how they would navigate resource acquisition and status hierarchies, which would not align with the preferred strategies of left-wing authoritarians who are themselves opposed to traditional status hierarchies in favor of their own rigid social structures.”
These findings suggest that judgments about leadership reflect deeper assumptions about what physical traits signal about a person’s values and likely behavior. People may infer, often unconsciously, that strong men favor competition, hierarchy, and dominance—traits associated with political conservatism. For those who support these values, physical strength may be a positive signal. For those who reject them, it may be a warning sign.
The study also raises questions about how perceptions of physical formidability intersect with broader political dynamics. If people consistently associate physical dominance with certain ideologies, this could influence real-world voting behavior or how leaders choose to present themselves. For instance, politicians might emphasize or downplay physical traits depending on their audience’s ideological leanings.
Despite the strengths of the study, there are some limitations to keep in mind. The sample consisted mostly of young White college students in the United States, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Political beliefs and physical appearance cues may be interpreted differently in other cultural contexts or age groups.
“These preferences are likely based in stereotypes,” Brown noted. “We have no information about the actual political orientation of the men they viewed, limiting our ability to understand whether these inferences are based on accurate assessments. It is also important to remember that these effects are based in the U.S. context. Left-wing authoritarianism may manifest differently in other countries.”
Future research could explore whether these patterns hold up in more ecologically valid settings, such as political debates or social media profiles, where people have access to additional cues beyond physical appearance. Researchers could also investigate whether similar patterns exist for female leaders or for other traits, such as vocal tone or facial expressions, that may signal dominance.
“My long-terms goals are to understand a literal body politic,” Brown explained. “I intend to identify the morphological and physical underpinnings of authoritarian personalities on the left and right and whether perceivers can accurately assess one’s authoritarianism through thin slices of information.”
“This research is not designed to disparage one political party or another. In fact, I am using this moment to demonstrate that politics are largely self-interested for the perceiver, and that preferences are oftentimes rooted in what could best serve a person in the moment.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113256) Heightened left-wing authoritarianism is associated with greater aversion to physical strength in male status allocation,” was authored by Mitch Brown and Donald F. Sacco.

(https://www.psypost.org/genetic-mutations-predict-alzheimers-onset-like-a-ticking-clock-study-finds/) Genetic mutations predict Alzheimer’s onset like a ticking clock, study finds
May 11th 2025, 18:00

New research published in (https://molecularneurodegeneration.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13024-025-00832-1) Molecular Neurodegeneration has revealed that mutations in three genes known to cause familial Alzheimer’s disease can predict when symptoms will begin. By analyzing how these mutations alter the production of amyloid-beta peptides in the brain, scientists found that each mutation acts like a molecular clock—shifting the age at which individuals develop dementia. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the disease and could help clinicians better estimate onset and develop targeted treatments.
While most cases of Alzheimer’s disease appear sporadically in old age, a small percentage of people inherit gene mutations that almost guarantee early-onset dementia. These familial cases are usually linked to mutations in one of three genes: PSEN1, PSEN2, or APP. People with these mutations typically develop symptoms well before age 65. Studying this form of Alzheimer’s helps researchers understand the biological processes that drive the disease and offers a window into possible interventions.
The team led by Professor Lucía Chávez Gutiérrez at VIB-KU Leuven has previously shown that mutations in PSEN1 influence the timing of Alzheimer’s symptoms through their effects on gamma-secretase—an enzyme complex that processes a protein called APP into fragments known as amyloid-beta peptides. These peptides accumulate in the brain and form sticky plaques, a hallmark of Alzheimer’s pathology. In the current study, the researchers expanded their investigation to include mutations in PSEN2 and the transmembrane region of APP, aiming to understand whether similar molecular changes could predict when symptoms will start.
To do this, the researchers conducted a biochemical analysis of 28 mutations in PSEN2 and 19 mutations in the APP gene. These included mutations known to be pathogenic, as well as others of unclear or benign significance. The team introduced these mutations into cell models and measured how they affected the production of different types of amyloid-beta peptides. They focused particularly on the ratio of shorter, less harmful peptides to longer, more toxic ones. This ratio is known to influence the likelihood and speed of plaque formation in the brain.
What they found was striking. For both PSEN2 and APP, changes in peptide ratios correlated with the age at which people developed Alzheimer’s symptoms. In other words, the greater the shift toward harmful peptide production, the earlier the onset. These relationships were linear, meaning that even small changes in peptide balance could predict meaningful changes in when symptoms would appear. In PSEN2 mutations, the correlation explained about half of the variation in age of onset; for APP, the correlation was even stronger.
Interestingly, although PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP mutations disrupted peptide processing in similar ways, they did not all trigger symptoms at the same age. On average, PSEN2 mutations led to disease 27 years later than PSEN1 mutations, while APP mutations delayed onset by about 8 years. These differences suggest that each gene contributes differently to disease progression, possibly because of differences in where and how these proteins function in brain cells.
In some cases, the predicted age of onset based on peptide ratios did not match up with what had been observed in patients. This discrepancy was especially apparent in PSEN2 and APP carriers. Some people developed symptoms earlier or later than expected, which could be due to other genetic or environmental factors that influence disease onset. For example, certain families with the same mutation had members who showed symptoms decades apart. These variations could point to protective or harmful modifiers of the disease—factors that are not yet fully understood but could open new doors for therapy.
The study also explored one particular outlier: extremely inactivating mutations in PSEN1. These mutations were expected to be highly pathogenic because they caused a strong shift toward toxic peptide production. Yet, surprisingly, they were associated with delayed onset of Alzheimer’s symptoms. This paradox may be explained by the fact that these mutations also reduce the total amount of peptide produced, somewhat balancing out their harmful effects. This finding raises the possibility that simply altering the quantity of enzyme activity—not just the quality of peptide products—can influence disease timing.
The researchers used their peptide ratio models to predict onset age for each mutation, then compared those predictions with actual clinical data. While the models worked well in many cases, they also revealed significant outliers. These mismatches suggest that other mechanisms, such as changes in gene expression or RNA splicing, could affect how much of the mutant protein is made in the brain. For example, some PSEN2 mutations showed lower stability or expression of the harmful allele, which might explain why symptoms occurred later than expected.
In the case of APP, some mutations not only altered peptide ratios but also increased the tendency of these peptides to clump together. This aggregation property, particularly in mutations affecting specific amino acid positions, could accelerate the formation of plaques independently of the ratio shifts. These extra factors might account for why some individuals developed symptoms much earlier than predicted based solely on gamma-secretase activity.
By comparing all three genes—PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP—the study provided a unified model of familial Alzheimer’s disease. All three show a linear relationship between molecular changes and symptom onset, but each has a distinct baseline due to how much each gene contributes to amyloid-beta production. These insights suggest that even small therapeutic shifts in peptide balance could significantly delay symptom onset. For example, changing the peptide ratio by just 12% could theoretically delay onset by five years in some cases.
The research offers hope for the development of targeted treatments. Modulators of gamma-secretase activity that promote the production of shorter, less toxic peptides are currently in development. These drugs could potentially slow or prevent Alzheimer’s in people with high genetic risk, and perhaps even in the broader population with sporadic forms of the disease.
The study, “(https://molecularneurodegeneration.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13024-025-00832-1) Spectrum of γ-Secretase dysfunction as a unifying predictor of ADAD age at onset across PSEN1, PSEN2 and APP causal genes,” was authored by Sara Gutiérrez Fernández, Cristina Gan Oria, Dieter Petit, Wim Annaert, John M. Ringman, Nick C. Fox, Natalie S. Ryan, and Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez.

(https://www.psypost.org/cannabidiol-boosts-social-learning-by-enhancing-brain-acetylcholine-signaling-study-finds/) Cannabidiol boosts social learning by enhancing brain acetylcholine signaling, study finds
May 11th 2025, 16:00

New research published in (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-024-06670-1) Psychopharmacology shows that cannabidiol, a major non-psychoactive compound in cannabis, can enhance a specific type of social memory in mice. This effect appears to be linked to changes in acetylcholine signaling in a key brain region called the basal forebrain. The findings provide new insight into how cannabidiol might influence cognitive processes and social behavior.
Cannabidiol, commonly known as CBD, is often promoted for its therapeutic effects on anxiety and cognition. However, the precise brain mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. In this study, researchers from National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan explored whether CBD could enhance social learning in mice by modulating a brain chemical called acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory and attention.
The focus of the study was on a behavior known as socially transmitted food preference. This type of learning allows mice to acquire information about safe food choices by interacting with other mice that have eaten specific flavored foods. This behavior depends on memory and social interaction and is used as a model for studying cognitive processes related to social learning.
The researchers conducted a series of experiments using male C57BL/6J mice, a common strain in laboratory research. They administered a single dose of CBD (20 mg/kg) to observer mice 30 minutes before a social interaction with a demonstrator mouse that had recently eaten a flavored food. After this interaction, the observer mice were tested to see whether they would preferentially consume the same flavored food, indicating that they had learned and remembered the social cue.
The researchers found that mice treated with CBD showed a significantly stronger preference for the food flavor eaten by the demonstrator compared to untreated mice. This enhancement was observed both immediately after the social interaction and 24 hours later, suggesting that CBD strengthened both short-term and longer-lasting memory for socially acquired information.
To understand how CBD might produce this effect, the researchers examined the role of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that is critical for learning and memory. Acetylcholine is produced in the basal forebrain and acts on receptors in various parts of the brain, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
In one experiment, the researchers reduced the activity of an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, which breaks down acetylcholine in the brain. By injecting a substance known as an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide directly into the brain, they lowered acetylcholinesterase levels in the basal forebrain. This treatment also enhanced food preference memory in mice, mimicking the effects of CBD.
In another experiment, they gave mice a drug called scopolamine, which blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. When mice were treated with both scopolamine and CBD, the memory-enhancing effect of CBD disappeared. This suggested that muscarinic receptors are essential for the cognitive benefits of CBD in this context.
To further probe the relationship between CBD and acetylcholine, the researchers measured acetylcholine levels in the basal forebrain after CBD administration. Interestingly, although there was no overall increase in acetylcholine levels across all CBD-treated mice, those that showed stronger food preference memory also had higher acetylcholine levels in this brain region. This correlation did not exist in the untreated mice.
These results suggest that CBD enhances social learning and memory by increasing acetylcholine signaling in mice that are responsive to the treatment. In particular, activation of muscarinic receptors in the basal forebrain appears to be necessary for this cognitive effect.
Importantly, the researchers ruled out several alternative explanations for their findings. CBD did not affect the mice’s overall food consumption, movement, or basic social behavior. Nor did it impair or enhance their ability to detect and discriminate between odors, a critical aspect of the socially transmitted food preference task. While CBD did reduce anxiety-like behavior shortly after administration, this effect had faded by the time of the 24-hour memory test, suggesting it did not account for the observed changes in memory.
The study highlights individual differences in how animals respond to CBD. Not all CBD-treated mice showed increased acetylcholine levels or improved memory. Only a subset appeared to benefit, which the researchers suggest may have implications for personalized medicine. In clinical contexts, CBD might enhance cognition in some individuals but have limited or no effects in others.
The findings also support a broader role for the brain’s cholinergic system in social learning. Previous research has shown that acetylcholine is important for learning from others, and that damage to cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain impairs social memory. This study extends that work by showing that increasing acetylcholine activity pharmacologically—either by inhibiting its breakdown or through CBD treatment—can enhance social memory.
There are some limitations to the study. The experiments were conducted in healthy young male mice, and it is unclear whether the same effects would be seen in female mice, older animals, or animals with cognitive impairments. The researchers also used only one dose of CBD and did not examine whether lower or higher doses would have different effects. Finally, while the study shows that muscarinic receptors are involved, it does not identify which specific receptor subtypes are responsible for the observed changes.
Future research could explore how CBD affects cholinergic signaling in more detail, including whether it acts directly on acetylcholine receptors or indirectly by altering enzyme activity. It would also be important to test whether these effects can be reproduced in animal models of cognitive disorders or in humans.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-024-06670-1) Cannabidiol enhances socially transmitted food preference: a role of acetylcholine in the mouse basal forebrain,” was authored by Chih-Yu Chang, Wen Dai, and Sherry Shu-Jung Hu.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-research-explores-the-costs-and-benefits-of-consenting-to-unwanted-sex/) New psychology research explores the costs and benefits of consenting to unwanted sex
May 11th 2025, 14:00

A study conducted in Finland found that consenting to sex despite not wanting it can have both positive and negative consequences for a person’s well-being. Positive outcomes are more likely when the decision to consent is driven by a desire to increase intimacy or express love. Negative consequences, on the other hand, are more common when the consent is the result of coercion or when the individual experiences sexual distress. The study was published in the (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2452844) Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy.
Sexual compliance refers to engaging in sexual activity with a partner even when one does not feel a personal desire to do so at that moment. This behavior is often motivated by a wish to satisfy the partner, maintain the relationship, avoid conflict, or fulfill perceived obligations. Unlike coercion, sexual compliance is usually voluntary, though it may still involve subtle pressures such as guilt or fear of disappointing the partner.
Research suggests that sexual compliance is relatively common in both long-term and casual relationships. While it may not be harmful in isolated instances, repeated compliance can lead to decreased sexual satisfaction and reduced emotional well-being. Over time, it may also contribute to feelings of resentment, emotional disconnection, or burnout.
Study author Sabina Nickull and her colleagues set out to examine the factors that predict the perceived outcomes of sexual compliance. They noted that sexual compliance can have both beneficial and harmful effects on well-being, depending on the context and underlying motivations.
The researchers hypothesized that positive outcomes would be more likely when individuals were motivated by approach motives—such as a desire to feel closer, express love, or experience pleasure—and when relationships were characterized by high levels of trust, effective sexual communication, and strong sexual self-esteem. Conversely, they predicted that people with insecure attachment styles, a history of sexual coercion, avoidance-based sexual motives, depression, anxiety, sexual distress, or low sexual assertiveness would be more likely to experience negative consequences.
Participants were selected at random from the Finnish population registry by the Digital and Population Data Service Agency of Finland. A total of 30,000 residents between the ages of 18 and 50 were invited to participate.
Out of those invited, 948 individuals completed the survey and met eligibility criteria, which required having a partner and having had sex with that partner. The average age of participants was 34 years. About 38% reported having complied with sex more than 100 times, 28% said they had done so a few dozen times, and 31% reported complying only a handful of times.
Participants completed a variety of standardized assessments. These included the Consequences of Sexual Compliance Scale, which measured perceived outcomes; measures of approach and avoidance motives for sex; and tools assessing sexual self-efficacy, sexual self-esteem, attachment style, depression and anxiety symptoms, sexual distress, sexual assertiveness, dyadic sexual communication, trust within the relationship, and experiences of sexual coercion by a partner.
When comparing men and women, the results showed that men, on average, reported higher levels of sexual self-efficacy, self-esteem, and sexual assertiveness. They also had stronger approach motives for sex and perceived more positive consequences of sexual compliance than women.
Women, in contrast, were more likely to report anxious attachment, experiences of partner sexual coercion, and higher levels of depression, anxiety, and perceived negative outcomes of sexual compliance.
Across both genders, approach motives for sex were the strongest predictors of positive consequences. In contrast, sexual coercion by a partner and sexual distress were the most reliable predictors of negative consequences. For women, avoidance-based motives for sex also predicted negative outcomes. For men, lower levels of trust in the partner were linked to more negative consequences.
“The strongest predictor of perceived positive consequences was having approach motives for sex, when controlling for all other predictors. The strongest predictors for perceived negative consequences of sexual compliance were having felt coerced to have sex by the partner in the past month and having experiences of sexual distress. There were slight variations in significant predictors for men and women, but the effects were generally small. The findings can guide clinicians working with couples with discrepancies in sexual desire to identify key focus areas in a clinical context,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the factors associated with psychological outcomes of sexual compliance. However, it should be noted that the study was exclusively conducted on residents of Finland. Findings on people from other cultures may differ.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2025.2452844) Predictors of Perceived Positive and Negative Consequences of Sexual Compliance,” was authored by Sabina Nickull, Patrick Jern, Caoyuan Niu, Marianne Källström, and Annika Gunst.

(https://www.psypost.org/do-you-call-your-partner-your-best-friend-this-study-says-youre-in-the-minority/) Do you call your partner your best friend? This study says you’re in the minority
May 11th 2025, 12:00

New research published in the (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/02654075251336872) Journal of Social and Personal Relationships provides insight into the intersection of friendship and romance. In a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States, only about 14% identified their romantic partner as their best friend. While these individuals reported more companionship in their lives, others who maintained a best friend outside their romantic relationship reported greater perceived social support.
The study aimed to understand the role of friendship within romantic relationships and whether having a partner who is also a best friend enhances relationship quality or well-being. Drawing on the convoy model of social relations—which suggests that people navigate life with a network of supportive ties—the researchers wanted to explore how personal and situational factors influence who we call a “best friend” and how this label relates to emotional closeness, routines, and psychological outcomes.
“My primary area of research is interested in friendship, and I was teaching a class where I shared an Atlantic article that asked something along the lines of, what if friendship, and not romance, was the center of our lives?” said study author (http://www.nataliepennington.com/) Natalie Pennington, an assistant professor at Colorado State University.
“I would always get really mixed reactions, and it did get me thinking about the blurry boundaries of relationships and societal expectations as we get older. I had the opportunity to reflect on that through my work with (https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0305834) The American Friendship Project, which is a project I co-lead that surveys connection and well-being in adults in the United States to better understand our relationships. In our datasets we keep the definition of friend quite broad, allowing people to self-identify romantic partners as a friend or as was the main focus of this study, a best friend.”
The research team analyzed data from 940 adults in romantic relationships who also had at least one person they considered a best friend. These participants were drawn from a larger national survey on friendship and social connection conducted in 2022. They ranged in age from 18 to 85, with a median age of 41, and represented diverse backgrounds in gender, race, income, and relationship status.
Participants were asked to list up to seven people they considered friends, without being told whether romantic partners should be included. For each person named, they could assign multiple labels such as “best friend,” “close friend,” or “romantic partner.” Additional measures assessed relationship closeness and routine interaction, as well as well-being outcomes like companionship, loneliness, stress, and social support.
About 36% of participants included their romantic partner in their list of friends. Of that group, 39.5% identified their partner as their best friend, translating to 14.4% of the total sample. The rest either did not list their partner at all or did not assign them the “best friend” label. Interestingly, a subset of those who called their partner a best friend also named other best friends, suggesting that these roles aren’t always exclusive.
“It is not technically the main focus of the study, but I did think it was interesting that some people (about 25% of the sample) labeled more than one person their best friend,” Pennington told PsyPost. “Sometimes socially I think there is this feeling of ‘I can only have one best friend’ and so I liked seeing that people didn’t always adhere to that.”
“I also really thought we would see more people label their best friend their romantic partner! There are not a lot of studies on this topic, but past research has been much more direct in asking “do you think your romantic partner is your best friend?” and so I wonder if part of our lower number comes from some people thinking they weren’t supposed to include their romantic partner as a friend (we didn’t tell them one way or the other). So on the one hand I think that’s one of the things that is useful with our study — you really see the unprompted potential of people saying they see their romantic partner as a friend or best friend.”
The researchers then explored which types of people were more likely to describe their romantic partner as their best friend. They found that older adults were slightly more likely to do so, while people with higher incomes and those who were married were less likely. Gender and the number of best friends a person had were not significantly related to the likelihood of giving a partner the “best friend” title.
Next, the researchers compared the quality of friendships depending on whether a person’s best friend was their romantic partner. Those who saw their partner as their best friend reported stronger emotional closeness and more frequent routine interaction than those whose best friend was not a partner. This suggests that combining friendship and romance may strengthen the quality of the bond—at least in the eyes of the person who holds that view.
However, the label “best friend” didn’t seem to make a difference when applied to romantic partners already considered a friend. Among participants who named their partner as a friend, those who also labeled them as a best friend did not rate their relationship as closer or more routine than those who simply called them a “friend.”
“For the best friend relationship, we compared participants who identified a different best friend in terms of their reported closeness and routine interactions with those who said their best friend was their romantic partner,” Pennington explained. “We found that those who had a best friend that was their romantic partner reported greater closeness and routines (which makes sense, because we do often tend to invest more time and energy into a romantic relationship).”
“For the romantic relationship, this was what spurred the title of the article — what’s in a label? Here we had compared participants who had included their romantic partner in the named friend task but did not say their partner was their best friend with those who had labeled them as a best friend, again, looking at closeness and routines. For these tests, we found no major difference between the two, signaling that calling them a ‘friend’ or ‘best friend’ are somewhat interchangeable.”
The researchers also wanted to know whether calling your partner your best friend was associated with better mental and emotional health. To do this, they looked at several outcomes—life satisfaction, companionship, perceived stress, loneliness, connection, disconnection, and perceived social support. They found that those who named their partner as their best friend reported greater companionship in daily life. On the other hand, those who had a separate best friend reported feeling more socially supported.
“Participants who had a best friend separate from their romantic partner reported higher levels of perceived social support,” Pennington told PsyPost. “This makes sense, because they have more people to turn to for help.”
“Participants who had a best friend that was their romantic partner reported greater feelings of companionship, which was the idea that we have someone who will go to events with us, spend time together, etc. In this case again I think this makes sense, because when we are really close with our romantic partner, we might see them as our go to person for spending time together, and perceive them as more likely to feel like they have to say yes when we ask to do something.”
These findings align with previous research suggesting that romantic partners can fulfill companionship needs, but friends might still be better positioned to offer certain types of emotional support. This may be especially true when people face challenges in their romantic relationships or when they have needs that their partner cannot meet alone.
The study also highlights how socioeconomic factors shape relationship networks. Lower-income participants were more likely to call their partner their best friend and also reported lower overall well-being. This suggests that when people have fewer resources, they may lean more heavily on a romantic partner to meet emotional needs, which can increase vulnerability if that relationship is strained. Conversely, people with higher incomes may have more time and opportunity to maintain a wider circle of close friends.
The study’s results offer insight into how people conceptualize the roles of romantic partners and friends in their lives. While labeling a partner as a best friend can be associated with increased companionship, it may also come at the expense of broader support networks. Having multiple sources of connection may be more beneficial than expecting one person to meet all emotional needs.
But the study has limitations. Since it was based on self-reports from a single moment in time, it’s unclear whether having a romantic partner as a best friend leads to better companionship, or if people who already feel close and connected are simply more likely to use that label. Also, the survey prioritized friendship, so participants may not have thought to include their partner among their friends unless prompted.
Future research could address these limitations by examining how relationships evolve over time and how people’s labels and behaviors shift across different life stages. Collecting data from both members of a couple could also offer richer insights into whether the view of a partner as a best friend is mutual, and whether shared perceptions improve well-being more than one-sided ones.
“This study encouraged me to think about new questions we can add to the survey going forward — thinking about, for example, gathering data about one’s romantic partner so we can make fuller comparisons,” Pennington said. “That said, our big goal with the American Friendship Project is to continue to provide insight into the state of friendship in the United States, which can include how inherently messy labeling can be — we really try with this data to show how at the end of the day it’s more about how we foster those connections through communication that matters the most. We hope to keep sharing what we learn not only through publications, but public outreach, and in the future, interventions based on our findings to help folks who may be struggling with connection.”
“I think the loose, big picture takeaways about this study are — invest time and energy into the people who matter, as they are the ones who can be there to help you when you’re feeling down and to celebrate your wins. I’d also say that valuing friendship in a romantic partnership is a great thing, but there is also value in investing in platonic friendships to have that fuller network to support you.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075251336872) What’s in a label? Exploring the intersection of relationships with best friends and romantic partners with well-being,” was authored by Natalie Pennington, Brooke H. Wolfe, Jeffrey A. Hall, Amanda J. Holmstrom, and Samantha T. Schaffer.

(https://www.psypost.org/11-fascinating-studies-that-reveal-how-motherhood-shapes-minds-bodies-and-brains/) 11 fascinating studies that reveal how motherhood shapes minds, bodies, and brains
May 11th 2025, 11:00

>From structural changes in the brain to shifts in stress hormones and the invisible burden of “mental load,” research continues to uncover the profound biological and psychological effects of motherhood. These 11 studies explore how maternal behaviors, biology, and experiences shape not just their children’s development, but also mothers’ own mental and physical well-being.

1. (https://www.psypost.org/children-with-supportive-mothers-tend-to-be-more-intelligent-regardless-of-their-mothers-own-intelligence/) Supportive mothers may boost children’s intelligence through age 10
A large longitudinal study published in Intelligence found that maternal supportiveness—defined by behaviors like sensitivity, cognitive stimulation, and positive regard—was associated with higher general intelligence in children, lasting into late childhood. Using observational assessments from when the children were 14 to 36 months old, researchers found that children with more supportive mothers tended to score higher on cognitive tests well into their elementary school years.
The relationship between maternal supportiveness and child intelligence remained significant even after accounting for the mother’s own cognitive abilities and the child’s temperament. While these early advantages may fade as genetic influences become more dominant in adulthood, researchers suggest that a small cognitive edge during key developmental years may have lasting life implications, such as better academic opportunities or higher self-confidence. The study highlights how maternal warmth and intellectual engagement during play may foster broader cognitive development.

2. (https://www.psypost.org/motherhood-linked-to-enduring-brain-changes-which-might-offer-protective-benefits/) Motherhood is linked to long-lasting changes in brain structure
According to a study in Scientific Reports, mothers exhibit higher gray matter density across various brain regions compared to women who have never given birth. These structural differences, found even decades after childbirth, suggest that the experience of pregnancy and early caregiving may have enduring effects on the brain’s architecture.
The areas of increased gray matter in mothers were widespread, spanning both cognitive and emotional processing regions. Notably, these changes were not observed in fathers, pointing to pregnancy-related biological mechanisms as the likely cause. Though the structural changes weren’t directly linked to well-being, they may offer protective effects against aging. This research adds to growing evidence that motherhood reshapes the brain, not just in the short term, but across the lifespan.

3. (https://www.psypost.org/the-lifelong-impact-of-early-touch/) A mother’s touch fosters emotional, cognitive, and social development
Skin-to-skin contact and affectionate touch are more than just comforting—they have measurable benefits for babies’ health and development, as well as for mothers’ mental well-being. Research reviews have found that newborns who experience more parental touch exhibit better temperature regulation, sleep, feeding, and brain development. These benefits extend to premature infants, with studies showing lower mortality, better weight gain, and reduced stress when mothers practice kangaroo care.
Touch benefits mothers as well. Daily skin-to-skin contact has been shown to reduce symptoms of postpartum depression and anxiety. Long-term studies suggest that early maternal touch improves mother-child emotional attunement and communication even years later. Despite outdated beliefs discouraging affectionate parenting, the science is clear: regular, nurturing touch is vital for both infant and maternal health.

4. (https://www.psypost.org/cortisol-levels-in-new-mothers-tied-to-parenting-behavior-and-brain-response-to-babys-cry/) Stress hormones may alter maternal brain responses and caregiving
A study in Psychoneuroendocrinology uncovered how maternal stress, measured through the hormone cortisol, is linked to less sensitive and more intrusive parenting behaviors. First-time mothers with higher cortisol levels showed reduced brain activity in regions responsible for emotion regulation and auditory processing when hearing their baby cry. These same mothers also tended to interrupt or control their infant’s play more frequently.
The findings suggest that elevated stress may interfere with the brain’s ability to tune into a baby’s needs, potentially disrupting the parent-infant bond. The study emphasizes the importance of maternal well-being in the postpartum period, not only for mothers’ mental health but also for fostering responsive caregiving. It points to stress as a key biological factor that may shape parenting behavior at the neurological level.

5. (https://www.psypost.org/did-romantic-love-evolve-by-co-opting-mother-infant-bonding-mechanisms/) Romantic love may be rooted in mother-infant bonding systems
An evolutionary theory proposed in Frontiers in Psychology suggests that romantic love may have developed from the same biological systems that support mother-infant bonding. Both experiences involve deep emotional connections, physical closeness, and a desire to protect and nurture the loved one. The theory is backed by neuroimaging studies showing that similar brain regions—particularly those rich in oxytocin and dopamine receptors—are active in both maternal and romantic love.
These shared pathways include areas associated with reward, motivation, and attachment. Hormonal overlaps, especially in oxytocin levels, further support the idea that the intense emotional drive seen in new mothers may have been evolutionarily adapted to foster long-term romantic bonds. This theory reframes romantic attachment as a byproduct of maternal bonding mechanisms, underlining how central motherhood is to human social behavior.

6. (https://www.psypost.org/mothers-brains-show-stronger-responses-when-winning-for-their-kids-than-for-themselves-study-finds/) Mothers are more motivated to win rewards for their children than for themselves
In a study published in Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, researchers found that mothers responded more quickly and showed stronger brain activity when playing games to win prizes for their children than when playing for themselves. Despite receiving no additional benefits, mothers exerted more effort and experienced more neural reward response when their children stood to gain.
This finding challenges the “self-advantage” principle in reward processing, where people typically show stronger reactions to personal rewards. The heightened motivation and neural engagement observed in mothers suggest that caring for one’s child can override self-interest at the biological level. It offers insight into the deeply ingrained, perhaps evolutionarily wired, prioritization of children’s well-being in maternal brains.

7. (https://www.psypost.org/mothers-shoulder-the-mental-load-of-housework-and-its-impacting-their-well-being/) The invisible mental burden of motherhood affects well-being
While mothers often perform more physical chores, a study in the Archives of Women’s Mental Health found that they also carry a much heavier share of the cognitive load—planning, organizing, and anticipating household tasks. This form of “invisible labor” was linked to higher levels of depression, stress, and burnout in mothers of young children.
Even when physical tasks were somewhat shared with partners, the unequal division of mental labor had a stronger impact on maternal well-being. The findings shed light on why many mothers feel overwhelmed even when partners appear involved. Addressing this mental load—often unacknowledged—may be key to improving maternal mental health and relationship satisfaction.

8. (https://www.psypost.org/mothers-gut-bacteria-shown-to-influence-babys-brain-development/) Gut bacteria in pregnant mothers may support fetal brain development
A mouse study published in Molecular Metabolism found that a specific gut bacterium, Bifidobacterium breve, enhanced fetal brain development when present in pregnant mothers. Fetuses exposed to the bacterium through their mothers had better nutrient transport and more active brain metabolism, including increased expression of proteins important for neuron growth and connectivity.
The research suggests that maternal gut health could influence how the fetal brain develops, offering a new potential pathway for non-invasive support during pregnancy. While more research is needed in humans, the study highlights the far-reaching influence of maternal biology on offspring brain outcomes—even through the microbiome.

9. (https://www.psypost.org/neuroplasticity-of-first-time-mothers-revealed-in-unprecedented-brain-imaging-study/) Maternal brain structure changes across pregnancy and postpartum
In the largest longitudinal brain imaging study of mothers to date, researchers found that first-time mothers experienced reductions in brain volume and cortical thickness during pregnancy, followed by increases in the postpartum period. These dynamic changes, published in Nature Neuroscience, affected areas related to emotion, attention, and social cognition.
The changes appeared to help mothers adapt to the demands of caregiving, with brain areas involved in maternal sensitivity and attachment undergoing the most transformation. The study supports the idea that pregnancy triggers a period of heightened brain plasticity in mothers—a biological remodeling that may prepare the brain for parenting while also influencing long-term maternal mental health.

10: (https://www.psypost.org/researchers-uncover-link-between-maternal-sensitivity-and-infant-brain-responses-to-happy-faces/) Sensitive mothers shape how babies’ brains respond to happiness
A study in Developmental Science found that infants whose mothers were more sensitive during play showed greater brain activity in response to happy faces. The activation occurred in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region involved in emotion regulation and social cognition. This suggests that early maternal sensitivity may fine-tune the baby’s social brain toward recognizing and responding to positive emotional cues.
Interestingly, this effect was specific to happy faces, with no significant brain changes for fearful or angry expressions. The research highlights how positive maternal interactions in early life don’t just protect against harm—they actively promote emotional resilience and social development in infants.

11. (https://www.psypost.org/maternal-warmth-in-childhood-predicts-key-personality-traits-years-later/) Maternal warmth shapes personality development into adulthood
A study in American Psychologist found that children who received more affection from their mothers grew into more open, conscientious, and agreeable young adults. Using data from over 1,000 twins in the UK, researchers showed that these effects held even when controlling for genetics and shared environment by comparing identical twins raised in the same household.
Twins who received more maternal warmth at ages 5 and 10 were more likely to display personality traits linked to better life outcomes at age 18. These findings suggest that parenting—particularly affectionate and supportive maternal behavior—can have a lasting influence on personality. Importantly, the emotional tone of parenting, not just the absence of harm, matters in shaping who we become.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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