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(https://www.psypost.org/neural-responses-to-mistakes-may-help-explain-how-depression-risk-is-passed-from-mothers-to-daughters/) Neural responses to mistakes may help explain how depression risk is passed from mothers to daughters
May 1st 2025, 10:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579424001780) Development and Psychopathology sheds light on how depression may be transmitted from mothers to daughters through differences in how the brain responds to errors. The researchers found that mothers with a history of depression had altered brain responses when they made mistakes, and some of these brain patterns were linked to their daughters’ own brain activity. The findings suggest that certain patterns of brain activity involved in error monitoring could reflect a potential pathway for the intergenerational transmission of depression.
The study was motivated by a well-established pattern in psychological research: depression often runs in families. Daughters of mothers with a history of depression are at significantly higher risk of developing the condition themselves. Yet the specific biological or psychological processes that contribute to this transmission are still not fully understood. The researchers wanted to explore whether the brain’s response to errors—an important aspect of cognitive control and self-monitoring—might be one such mechanism.
“We are interested in understanding how vulnerability for developing depression is transmitted across generations, especially through cognitive and neural processes. This study allowed us to explore how brain responses to errors might differ in families with a history of depression and whether they are correlated in mother-daughter dyads,” said study author (https://simonmorandbeaulieu.com/) Simon Morand-Beaulieu, a doctoral candidate in clinical neuropsychology at the Université du Québec à Montréal.
The research team recruited 97 mother-daughter pairs from the Montreal area. About half of the mothers had a history of recurrent major depressive disorder. All participants completed a computer task known as the Flanker task, which is designed to elicit errors under time pressure. During this task, participants were hooked up to an electroencephalogram (EEG) to record their brain activity. The researchers focused on three specific brain responses to mistakes: the error-related negativity (ERN), and changes in two frequency bands of brain oscillations known as delta and theta.
In addition to the EEG data, the team collected information about participants’ current depression symptoms using standardized questionnaires. Clinical interviews were also conducted to verify psychiatric histories and rule out other diagnoses that might complicate the results.
The researchers found that mothers with a history of recurrent depression showed a distinct pattern in their brain’s response to mistakes. Specifically, they had reduced delta power and increased theta power in response to errors, compared to mothers without a depression history. These patterns were also associated with the mothers’ current levels of depressive symptoms: the more symptoms a mother reported, the lower her delta response and the higher her theta response.
Interestingly, there was no significant difference between the two groups of mothers in terms of ERN amplitude, a brain signal often linked with error detection. However, when the researchers looked at similarities between mothers and daughters, they found a significant correlation in ERN amplitude. This suggests that the ERN may be a familial trait, possibly shaped by genetic or environmental influences shared within the mother-daughter pair.
The study also looked at whether a mother’s depression history or current symptoms were related to her daughter’s neural responses to errors. Among daughters who had never experienced depression themselves, the researchers found that lower delta power in response to errors was significantly associated with higher maternal depression symptoms. This association suggests that a reduced delta response in the brain might be an early marker of vulnerability to depression, even before clinical symptoms appear.
“Our findings suggest that patterns of brain activity related to error processing may reflect potential vulnerability for developing depression, and that those patterns, among adolescent girls, are associated with their mothers’ symptoms of depression,” Morand-Beaulieu told PsyPost. “Recognizing these patterns could eventually help in early identification and prevention efforts.”
Although the ERN and theta power in daughters were not significantly associated with their mothers’ depression, the link between maternal depression symptoms and daughters’ delta response stood out as potentially meaningful. This is especially notable because delta oscillations have been associated with motivational processing. A blunted delta response might indicate lower sensitivity to mistakes, reduced emotional engagement, or difficulty in adjusting behavior—all of which could contribute to depression risk.
The study provides preliminary support for the idea that certain brain responses to errors may be one way depression risk is passed from parent to child. While the ERN appears to show familial similarity, delta oscillations may reflect a more dynamic, symptom-related process that could signal vulnerability in the next generation.
“We were surprised that not all neural markers of errors assessed in this study were associated in the same way with maternal history of depression and were not all correlated in mother-daughter dyads,” Morand-Beaulieu explained. “This suggests potential differences in the functional significance of those markers and their role in depression that would warrant further investigation.”
Like all research, the study has limitations. The sample included only mothers and daughters, so the findings may not apply to father-child or mother-son relationships. The relatively small sample size, especially for EEG analyses, may have limited the ability to detect some effects. Additionally, because the study was cross-sectional, it cannot determine whether these brain differences actually lead to depression over time.
“More research is needed with larger and more diverse populations,” Morand-Beaulieu said. “It would be interesting to include fathers and sons in this type of research. We hope that this line of research leads to new developments in the identification of at-risk youth earlier and more accurately. By understanding the neural markers of depression vulnerability, there is hope that we can move toward more targeted and preventative interventions.
“It’s important to remember that neural differences are just one piece of the puzzle. Social support, environment, and resilience, for instance, all play critical roles in vulnerability to depression.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579424001780) Neural response to errors among mothers with a history of recurrent depression and their adolescent daughters,” was authored by Simon Morand-Beaulieu, Iulia Banica, Clara Freeman, Paige Ethridge, Aislinn Sandre, and (https://annaweinberg8.wixsite.com/traclab) Anna Weinberg.

(https://www.psypost.org/type-2-diabetes-alters-brain-circuits-involved-in-reward-processing-study-finds/) Type 2 diabetes alters brain circuits involved in reward processing, study finds
May 1st 2025, 08:00

A new study published in (https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/02/23/JNEUROSCI.1546-24.2025) The Journal of Neuroscience has found that type 2 diabetes can alter how the brain processes spatial and reward-related information. Using a rodent model of diabetes, researchers showed that neural activity in a brain region called the anterior cingulate cortex shifted away from representing reward locations and instead became more focused on anticipating them. The findings raise questions about how metabolic disorders may impact cognition and motivation.
Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder that disrupts blood sugar regulation and is linked to widespread health problems, including increased risk for dementia and depression. Previous research has shown that people with diabetes often experience subtle cognitive difficulties, including problems with working memory and attention. However, scientists still have a limited understanding of how the disease disrupts specific brain circuits that support these functions.
“Type 2 diabetes is the number one modifiable risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease and the condition also has cognitive impacts on its own that are not well understood,” said study author (https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/a-neuroscientists-guide-to-psychology) James M. Hyman, an associate professor of psychology at University of Nevada Las Vegas and director of (https://hivelab.faculty.unlv.edu/) the HivE Lab.
To investigate this, the researchers turned to a well-established animal model of diabetes. They used a chemical compound called streptozotocin to induce chronic hyperglycemia in rats, mimicking the prolonged high blood sugar levels seen in human type 2 diabetes. They then trained the rats to perform a spatial working memory task known as delayed alternation. In this task, rats learned to alternate between left and right turns in a T-shaped maze to receive a reward—a drop of sugar-free chocolate milk—after a short delay.
During task performance, the researchers recorded the activity of neurons in two brain regions: the anterior cingulate cortex, which is part of the prefrontal cortex and plays a central role in goal-directed behavior and reward processing, and the hippocampus, which is critical for memory and spatial navigation. Tiny electrodes implanted in the rats’ brains allowed the researchers to measure the firing patterns of individual neurons and analyze how these patterns changed in response to different parts of the maze and different stages of the task.
The researchers found that, on the surface, diabetic and control rats performed similarly on the task. Both groups completed the same number of trials, had similar accuracy on short-delay trials, and moved through the maze at comparable speeds.
However, subtle behavioral differences emerged when the researchers looked more closely. Diabetic rats spent less time at the reward location than healthy rats. While control animals often paused after receiving the reward, a pattern known as the “post-reinforcement pause,” diabetic rats quickly moved on, suggesting a reduced sensitivity or response to receiving a reward.
When the researchers examined neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, they observed a number of differences between diabetic and control rats. Although the overall firing rates of individual neurons were similar between the two groups, diabetic rats showed higher spatial information content in their neural activity. In other words, their neurons were more precisely tuned to specific locations in the maze. Notably, many more neurons in the diabetic rats behaved like “place cells,” which fire when an animal is in a specific location.
However, these place cells were not evenly distributed across the maze. In diabetic rats, they were heavily concentrated in areas leading up to the reward zone rather than at or after the reward location itself. This suggests that the diabetic rats’ brains were focusing more on anticipating the reward rather than responding to its receipt. In contrast, control rats had neurons that were more evenly spread across the maze and especially prominent at the reward location, reflecting both reward anticipation and receipt.
“We did not expect to find changes to reward processing,” Hyman told PsyPost. “We thought there would be differences related to memory processes only, but interestingly we found this key circuit between the hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex (which we thought was primarily a memory circuit), is actually strongly involved in reward activity. This is also a key circuit that is altered early in the progression from healthy aging to mild cognitive impairment (the first step on the road to dementia).”
At the population level, the researchers found further evidence of altered processing in diabetic rats. In control animals, groups of neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex showed distinct activity patterns that clearly differentiated between left and right turns in the maze, especially at the reward location. This pattern was weaker in diabetic rats, indicating that their neural ensembles did not encode reward-related spatial information as strongly.
The study also looked at how neural activity was coordinated with rhythmic brain waves known as theta oscillations, which are involved in memory and navigation. In control rats, neurons that were synchronized with theta rhythms—particularly those coming from the hippocampus—were especially important for coding reward information. In diabetic rats, this reward-related coding by theta-synchronized neurons was muted, even though the number of synchronized cells was similar across both groups. This suggests that while the structure of neural communication remained intact, the information being transmitted was altered.
Importantly, the researchers found that diabetic rats still retained information about the expected value of rewards. When analyzing firing patterns that predicted task events regardless of maze location, they found similar activity between groups. However, the key difference was that reward location and reward expectation, which were tightly linked in control rats, became dissociated in diabetic animals. This separation could explain why diabetic rats failed to linger at the reward site even though they anticipated receiving a reward.
“Type 2 diabetes leads to changes in how rewards are processed in our brains,” Hyman explained. “While these changes don’t impair cognitive performance, they do show that the brain is functioning differently.”
“This has two main impacts: 1) Decreased reward responses with type 2 diabetes could help explain why it is so difficult for patients to stick to lifestyle changes, such as proper diet and exercise. Their brains just don’t respond to normal rewards like they should. 2) Alzheimer’s has a decades-long prodromal phase where the effects are hidden by the brain’s ability to reroute processes and solve problems differently, known as cognitive or neural compensation. This masks underlying pathology and is currently not detectable.”
“If we can detect when patients are unknowingly using cognitive compensation, it might help us identify people in their 40s and 50s who are on their way to getting Alzheimer’s disease in their 70s. Hopefully, we could intervene and prevent the disease from ever appearing.”
The study does have some limitations. The research was conducted in rats, and while these models are useful for studying disease mechanisms, results do not always translate directly to humans. Additionally, the behavioral task focused on short-delay trials, so it remains unclear whether the observed effects would be more pronounced under more demanding memory conditions.
“This data all comes from rodent models, so all necessary caveats are in play,” Hyman noted. “Also, these animals only had one symptom of type 3 diabetes, chronic hyperglycemia. This is usually accompanied by obesity and other metabolic problems. For this study, we wanted to isolate hyperglycemia.”
The researchers point to several possible mechanisms behind the altered brain activity in diabetic rats. One possibility is the destruction of glucose-monitoring neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex by streptozotocin, which may disrupt how this region processes reward. Another possibility involves changes in a brain metabolite called myo-inositol, which is elevated in diabetes and has been linked to altered brain connectivity and cognitive decline.
Future research could explore how these changes develop over time and whether similar patterns are present in human patients. The findings also suggest new questions about how diabetes treatments—including lifestyle changes and medication—might help preserve or restore healthy brain function. As diabetes rates continue to rise globally, understanding how the condition impacts the brain will become increasingly important for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies.
“We hope to identify the hidden signatures of cognitive compensation so that we can know better what to look for in patients,” Hyman explained. “Since once Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed, there is no cure, the hope is that early intervention might be able to halt the disease.”
“The big problem seems to be from untreated diabetes, so it is important to have annual blood tests to detect diabetes,” he added. “And if diagnosed, it is important to monitor your blood sugar levels and aim to avoid large fluctuations.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1546-24.2025) ACC reward location information is carried by hippocampal theta synchrony and suppressed in a Type 2 Diabetes model,” was authored by Guncha Bhasin, Emmanuel Flores, Lauren A. Crew, Ryan A. Wirt, Andrew A. Ortiz, Jefferson W. Kinney, and James M. Hyman.

(https://www.psypost.org/more-intelligent-people-hit-puberty-earlier-but-tend-to-reproduce-later-study-finds/) More intelligent people hit puberty earlier but tend to reproduce later, study finds
May 1st 2025, 06:00

A study recently published in (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40750-025-00258-5) Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology offers new insight into a long-standing puzzle in human development: why people with higher intelligence tend to reproduce later and have fewer children, even though they show signs of better reproductive health. The research found that more intelligent individuals tend to undergo puberty earlier, but they also delay starting families and end up with fewer children overall.
The study was designed to explore the apparent contradiction between two sets of findings. On one hand, intelligence is linked to various indicators of good health and reproductive fitness, including higher-quality sperm and earlier puberty. On the other hand, people with higher intelligence tend to have fewer children. To explain this, the researchers proposed a model that integrates three existing theories: system integrity theory, life history theory, and evolutionary novelty theory. These frameworks help distinguish between traits that are biologically fixed and those that are more flexible or shaped by preferences and decision-making.
“I’m an evolutionary psychologist, so anything that elucidates the workings of evolution—from our cognitive biases to adaptive behaviors—is of interest to me. Paradoxes or ironies can be quite strong indicators of evolutionary design at work, because they appear contradictory on the surface but on deeper examination reveal that fundamental biological constraints are still being adhered to,” said study author (https://joseyong.com/index.html) Jose Yong, a senior lecturer at James Cook University.
“The unusual link between intelligence and reproduction is one such puzzle to tackle, and it also allowed us to test an interesting synthesis between a few middle-level evolutionary theories: system integrity theory (the tendency for intelligence to positively correlate with physical health), life history theory (facultative adjustment toward slower or faster reproduction), and evolutionary novelty theory (the link between intelligence and evolutionarily unfamiliar activities and preferences).”
System integrity theory suggests that intelligence is a sign of overall genetic health and biological quality. According to this idea, people with higher intelligence should also have better reproductive systems and physical health, including earlier puberty. In contrast, life history theory focuses on how people adjust their behavior in response to their environments. From this perspective, people may delay reproduction if they can invest in education or career development first. Finally, evolutionary novelty theory proposes that intelligent people are more likely to adopt new behaviors or values that differ from those of our ancestors, such as choosing not to have children or prioritizing personal goals over family life.
To test this framework, the researchers analyzed data from two large-scale longitudinal studies. The first was the National Child Development Study in the United Kingdom, which followed over 17,000 people born in 1958. The second was the U.S.-based Add Health study, which tracked more than 20,000 adolescents into adulthood. These datasets provided a wealth of information on childhood intelligence, the timing of puberty, sexual behavior, and number of children. The researchers also accounted for other factors that could influence these outcomes, such as education, nutrition, and overall health.
In both samples, the findings were consistent. People with higher childhood intelligence experienced puberty earlier. For example, in the British sample, more intelligent girls started menstruating at a younger age than their less intelligent peers, and more intelligent boys showed more advanced signs of puberty at the same age. These results held even after controlling for factors like education and body mass index, suggesting a biological link between intelligence and the timing of puberty.
But when it came to reproductive behavior, the pattern reversed. More intelligent individuals waited longer to start having sex, get married, or have children. They also ended up with fewer children by early adulthood. For instance, in the British study, the most intelligent women had their first child nearly seven years later, on average, than the least intelligent women. Similar patterns were observed among men. In the U.S. data, more intelligent people reported fewer sexual partners during adolescence and were less likely to be married or cohabiting in their twenties.
These results support the researchers’ integrated model. System integrity theory helps explain the biological advantages associated with intelligence, such as earlier puberty. Life history theory accounts for how people adjust their reproductive behavior based on their circumstances and goals. And evolutionary novelty theory helps explain why intelligent individuals might make choices that run counter to what would have been adaptive in our evolutionary past. The researchers argue that these findings reflect a distinction between biological development and behavioral choices.
“System integrity theory suggests that intelligence would predict health, including reproductive health, which should then predict higher fertility,” Yong told PsyPost. “However, studies indicate that smarter people have fewer children. These contradictory patterns can be resolved by recognizing that life history theory operates on two levels: physiological (i.e., rigid and obligate, e.g., your height, quality of gametes, puberty timing) and behavioral (i.e., flexible and facultative, e.g., your personality, preferences). So even though intelligent individuals are reproductively endowed at the physiological level with earlier puberty (which should typically predict faster reproduction), they opt for reduced sexual activity and fewer children at the behavioral level (resulting in slower reproduction).”
Importantly, the study’s results remained significant even after accounting for confounding factors. In both samples, intelligence continued to predict earlier puberty and later reproductive behavior, although some effects became weaker when adjusting for education and health. For example, intelligence was no longer significantly related to some early reproductive decisions once education was taken into account. This may be because intelligence and education are closely linked, making it difficult to separate their individual effects.
“What was perhaps interesting (apart from what we had initially set out to find) was when we controlled for the potential confounding effects of education, nutrition, and general health,” Yong explained. “First, we found that the intelligence-puberty (physiological) link remained significant while the some of the intelligence-behavior links were attenuated. This actually very nicely corresponds with one of the ‘problems’ of complexity, which is that as we move from simpler phenomena (e.g., physiological, biological) to more complex phenomena (e.g., behavior, psychology) as per Comte’s hierarchy of knowledge, predictability necessarily decreases. But the overall predicted patterns for behavior still held more rather than less, particularly for number of children.”
The study also sheds light on larger social trends. In many developed countries, fertility rates are declining, especially among people with higher education. This research suggests that part of the explanation may lie in how intelligence interacts with modern environments. As people become more educated and exposed to novel values and lifestyles, they may prioritize personal fulfillment or career success over traditional family structures. This shift could have broad implications for future population patterns.
While the study draws on two large and nationally representative datasets, it is not without limitations. The data are observational, which means the researchers cannot confirm cause-and-effect relationships. In addition, the samples come from the United States and United Kingdom, which may not represent other societies with different cultural or economic conditions.
“Because we used nationally representative British and American datasets, we reduced any problems with sampling biased portions of the population,” Yong noted. “But perhaps we can’t be 100% sure that the results will pan out similarly in other non-Western cultures or in later generations.”
Future research may explore whether the same patterns hold for other traits associated with reproductive health, such as physical strength or hormone levels. It may also examine how cultural changes — like widespread access to contraception or shifting gender norms — influence the relationship between intelligence and reproduction. Another direction could involve studying how intelligence shapes long-term investment in children, such as parenting quality or educational outcomes, which might offer a different kind of reproductive success.
Looking forward, Yong hopes “to continue uncovering evidence of evolutionary design in human psychology and behavior. Elsewhere, I have examined, for instance, how ‘unorthodox’ cultures such as matrilinies seem to go against evolutionary predictions but, on closer inspection, are still fundamentally bound by evolutionary/biological principles. Another related direction is examining (https://theconversation.com/human-culture-is-changing-too-fast-for-evolution-to-catch-up-heres-how-it-may-affect-you-227711) the modern world as an evolutionarily novel setting, which can lead to a variety of problematic outcomes associated with mismatch between the environment and our evolved human nature.”
“The bottomline is as Thomas Dobzhansky said, ‘Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.’ Humans are biological beings, so even our psychology and culture are bound by evolutionary rules. Based on this premise, even though doubts might sometimes arise when looking at unusual or seemingly contradictory data, it is far more likely that there are interesting evolutionary intricacies to be discovered by digging deeper.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-025-00258-5) Able But Unwilling: Intelligence is Associated with Earlier Puberty and Yet Slower Reproduction,” was authored by Jose C. Yong and Satoshi Kanazawa.

(https://www.psypost.org/unpredictable-childhoods-may-shape-how-people-relate-to-god/) Unpredictable childhoods may shape how people relate to God
Apr 30th 2025, 18:00

New research published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941241291033) Psychological Reports suggests that unpredictable early life experiences can shape how people relate to God, potentially influencing their ability to experience divine forgiveness and engage in religious coping. The findings indicate that individuals who grow up in more unstable environments are more likely to develop insecure attachments to God, which in turn may reduce their feelings of being forgiven by God and hinder how they use their faith to cope with life’s challenges.
The research is grounded in the idea that people’s early experiences, particularly the stability or unpredictability of their environments, play a major role in shaping emotional development and attachment styles. Past studies have shown that unpredictable childhoods can lead to insecure attachments to caregivers and romantic partners. This new work extends those insights to religious life, exploring whether attachment to God follows a similar pattern. The researchers also examined whether these attachments relate to how people perceive divine forgiveness and use religious practices to cope with stress.
To investigate these questions, the researchers conducted two studies involving college students who believed in a higher power. The first study included 441 participants and focused on whether childhood unpredictability was related to insecure attachment to God, and whether that attachment was in turn linked to perceived divine forgiveness. Participants completed questionnaires that measured their early experiences, how they relate to God, their sense of divine forgiveness, and their general religiosity.
The study used a statistical method called path analysis to examine these connections. The results showed that people who experienced more unpredictability during childhood tended to be more avoidantly attached to God. In other words, they were more likely to see God as distant or impersonal and to feel emotionally removed from a relationship with God. This avoidant attachment was then associated with lower levels of perceived divine forgiveness. The researchers found that avoidant attachment fully explained the link between childhood unpredictability and reduced feelings of divine forgiveness. Anxious attachment, which involves fear of abandonment and a desire for closeness, was also related to divine forgiveness, but it did not significantly explain the impact of childhood unpredictability.
In the second study, the researchers expanded their analysis to include religious coping—the ways in which people turn to their faith to manage stress. This study involved 417 college students who, like in the first study, believed in a higher power. In addition to the measures used in the first study, this group also completed a questionnaire that assessed both positive and negative religious coping behaviors. Positive coping included practices like seeking comfort from God or praying, while negative coping included feeling punished or abandoned by God.
The findings largely confirmed the patterns from the first study. Individuals who reported more unpredictability in their childhoods were again more likely to report avoidant attachment to God, which was associated with less perceived divine forgiveness. This lower sense of forgiveness, in turn, was linked to reduced engagement in positive religious coping strategies. Anxious attachment was also associated with divine forgiveness, but in a more complex way. While anxious attachment was positively related to both divine forgiveness and positive coping, the researchers noted this may be due to statistical suppression effects—where controlling for one form of attachment changes the apparent direction of associations for the other.
Interestingly, the researchers also found that the relationship between avoidant attachment and outcomes like forgiveness and coping was not always linear. People who were either very low or very high in avoidant attachment tended to show lower levels of anxious attachment and were more likely to engage in positive religious coping. This finding suggests that people who are moderately avoidant in their relationship with God may be at greater risk of negative religious experiences than those at either extreme.
While the results for positive coping were clear, the connection between childhood unpredictability and negative religious coping was less consistent. Although the data suggested that insecure attachment and reduced divine forgiveness might explain why people from unpredictable backgrounds engage in more negative religious coping, this effect became weaker after accounting for other variables like religiosity and demographic characteristics.
Together, these studies suggest that early life experiences—specifically how unpredictable or unstable one’s upbringing was—can influence how people relate to God later in life. These relationships, in turn, appear to shape whether people feel forgiven by God and how they draw upon their faith in times of stress. The researchers argue that these findings support using attachment theory as a framework for understanding religious belief and practice. Just as people’s relationships with their parents can shape how they relate to others in adulthood, their experiences of care and consistency (or the lack thereof) can shape how they relate to a divine figure.
One of the more novel contributions of this research is the idea that divine forgiveness may act as a psychological bridge between early experiences, attachment to God, and the way people use religion to cope. While divine forgiveness is a central theme in many religious traditions, it has received relatively little attention in psychological research. The findings here suggest that feeling forgiven by God may be an important part of how religion contributes to well-being.
Despite the insights provided, the authors acknowledge several limitations. Most participants were White, Christian women attending college, which limits how broadly the findings can be applied. Gender, in particular, has been shown to influence both attachment patterns and religious behaviors, meaning the results might look different in a more balanced or diverse sample. The researchers also note that they did not collect information about participants’ current socioeconomic status, which might buffer or amplify the effects of childhood unpredictability.
Another limitation is that the studies were cross-sectional, meaning all data were collected at one point in time. As a result, the researchers cannot say with certainty whether childhood unpredictability causes insecure attachment to God or whether other factors might explain the associations. Longitudinal research, which follows people over time, would be better suited to establishing whether early experiences directly shape these religious psychological processes.
Finally, the researchers stress that other factors not measured in the current studies may also play a role. For example, a person’s image of God—whether they see God as kind or harsh—could influence how they experience divine forgiveness and how they cope. Engagement in religious communities and exposure to religious teachings during childhood might also shape how people view and relate to God.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941241291033) Childhood Unpredictability is Associated With Religious Coping Through Attachment to God and Divine Forgiveness,” was authored by Heather M. Maranges and Frank D. Fincham.

(https://www.psypost.org/men-show-stronger-aversion-to-economic-inequality-than-women-when-mating-is-at-stake-study-finds/) Men show stronger aversion to economic inequality than women when mating is at stake, study finds
Apr 30th 2025, 16:00

A new study published in (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513824001090) Evolution and Human Behavior has found that men, compared to women, tend to prefer societies with less economic inequality—especially when they are thinking about finding a romantic partner. The researchers suggest this pattern may be rooted in different mating strategies, where men expect their life quality after marriage to decline in highly unequal environments, while women may anticipate an improvement.
Although people generally dislike economic inequality, the idea that this aversion could differ between men and women in the context of mating had not been explored in detail until now. Drawing on evolutionary theories of mate selection, the researchers hypothesized that economic inequality creates different incentives and outcomes for each sex.
Men may face greater competition and reduced household outcomes after marriage in unequal societies, while women may stand to gain by partnering with higher-status individuals. This could mean men are more sensitive to inequality when thinking about long-term relationships.
To test this, the researchers conducted five separate studies using data from both the United States and China. The first two studies used population-level data to explore how inequality influenced the local ratio of reproductive-aged men to women. Study 1A analyzed data from all 50 U.S. states between 2006 and 2019, while Study 1B looked at county-level data from 2010 and 2020. In both cases, the researchers found that higher income inequality was linked to a lower ratio of reproductive-aged men compared to women. This suggests that in more unequal areas, there may be relatively fewer men in the mating pool—possibly because they are less willing to stay in these areas.
Study 2 examined this idea more directly by analyzing migration patterns of over 4.7 million reproductive-aged Americans. The researchers found that men living in states with high economic inequality were more likely to move away than women, supporting the idea that men are more likely to avoid unequal environments when making life decisions about where to live. These findings held even after controlling for income, education, employment, and other demographic variables.
While the first three studies relied on archival data, the next two experiments tested whether inequality preference could be influenced by making mating goals more salient. Study 3 involved over 800 Chinese university students who were randomly assigned to imagine living in a fictional society with either high or low economic inequality.
Participants were told to either think about finding a romantic partner or about pursuing a job in that society. Men who were asked to imagine looking for a partner in a high-inequality society showed significantly lower preference for living in that society compared to women. This effect was not observed in the work-related condition.
Study 4 replicated these findings in a more targeted sample of 418 heterosexual Chinese college students who were actively seeking romantic partners. Again, men showed a lower preference for high-inequality societies compared to women.
Importantly, the researchers also measured participants’ expectations about their life quality after marriage and found that this helped explain the results. Men expected their household status and income to decline after marriage in unequal societies, while women expected theirs to improve. A statistical mediation analysis confirmed that these expectations helped account for the sex difference in inequality preferences.
Taken together, the findings suggest that men and women respond differently to economic inequality in part because they anticipate different outcomes from romantic relationships in these environments. In unequal societies, men face steeper competition for partners, often end up partnering with lower-status individuals, and expect to see a drop in life quality after marriage. Women, on the other hand, may have more opportunities to partner with higher-status men and anticipate upward mobility, even if such relationships come with increased competition.
The researchers argue that these results provide a more nuanced view of how people form attitudes toward inequality. While previous research has often found that women show greater concern about fairness and social equality, this study shows that context matters. When mating goals are activated, women may become more tolerant of inequality, especially if they believe it increases their chances of improving their status through marriage.
These insights also speak to broader evolutionary theories. Men are often expected to compete for resources and status to improve their attractiveness to potential mates, especially in highly unequal societies where the stakes are higher. Women, who often prefer partners with more resources, may use inequality as a cue that high-status men are available, even if it means facing more competition.
The study provides evidence that attitudes toward economic inequality are not just shaped by ideology or income level—they can also be deeply tied to our evolutionary psychology. But it also has limitations. Most of the experimental data came from college students in China, which may not reflect attitudes across different age groups, cultures, or relationship contexts.
The researchers also focused only on heterosexual participants, meaning the results might not generalize to people with other sexual orientations or gender identities. In addition, although the experiments manipulated perceptions of inequality and measured participants’ preferences, real-world decisions about where to live or whom to marry are influenced by many other factors.
Future research could explore whether similar sex differences exist in polygynous societies, where wealthier men may have multiple partners, or in cultures with different norms around marriage and gender roles. The authors also suggest that subjective perceptions of inequality—how unequal people feel their society is—could be just as important as objective measures in shaping preferences. Understanding how these different forms of inequality influence people’s life choices may help policymakers and social scientists better grasp how economic structures interact with human behavior.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.106633) Men (but not women) prefer to live in economically equal societies when it comes to mating: A five-study investigation,” was authored by Xijing Wang, Hao Chen, and Khandis R. Blake.

(https://www.psypost.org/psychology-breakthroughs-5-fascinating-new-advances-in-the-science-of-the-mind/) Psychology breakthroughs: 5 fascinating new advances in the science of the mind
Apr 30th 2025, 15:12

New discoveries in psychology are shedding light on how our brains, bodies, and behaviors are deeply connected in unexpected ways. From the cognitive quirks of people with psychopathic traits to the surprising influence of testosterone on empathy, these recently published studies explore how individual differences shape learning, emotion, political engagement, and even mental health.
(Click on the headlines below to read more.)

1. (https://www.psypost.org/psychopathic-traits-linked-to-distinct-cognitive-disruptions-in-learning/) Not all psychopaths learn the same way
New research published in Translational Psychiatry reveals that people with psychopathic traits show specific patterns of disrupted learning, particularly when it comes to updating their behavior after receiving feedback. Rather than uniformly struggling to learn from rewards or punishments, individuals high in traits like manipulativeness, impulsivity, or lack of empathy exhibited different learning difficulties. For example, those high in antisocial traits were more likely to believe that their environment was constantly changing, making it hard to form stable expectations about actions and outcomes.
Using a foraging-style decision-making task and brainwave recordings from 108 adults, the researchers discovered that distinct psychopathic traits were linked to unique learning impairments. People with interpersonal traits (like superficial charm) were less responsive to meaningful rewards, while those high in affective traits (like emotional coldness) failed to adjust their behavior after experiencing painful punishments. Importantly, these differences also showed up in brain activity, suggesting that psychopathic tendencies are tied to how people process and adapt to social consequences. The findings challenge the idea that all individuals with psychopathic traits are insensitive to punishment, pointing instead to the need for personalized approaches in interventions.

2. (https://www.psypost.org/scientists-uncover-links-between-brain-damage-and-how-intensely-people-engage-in-politics/) Brain damage can intensify political behavior—regardless of beliefs
A study published in Brain has found that damage to specific brain networks can increase or decrease how intensely people engage in politics, without changing their underlying political beliefs. Researchers studied 124 male United States military veterans who sustained brain injuries decades ago and compared them to a control group. They found that injuries affecting certain brain circuits—especially those involved in emotional and cognitive control—were associated with either heightened or diminished political involvement, including how often people followed news or discussed politics.
Crucially, the changes in political engagement did not depend on whether someone identified as liberal or conservative. The brain regions affected were not tied to ideology but rather to how strongly people acted on their beliefs. This distinction adds a new layer to how scientists understand political behavior: it’s not just about what people believe, but how their brain circuits influence the energy they devote to acting on those beliefs. The findings mirror earlier studies linking brain damage to changes in religious fundamentalism and suggest that brain-based mechanisms may influence the intensity—not the content—of ideological expression.

3. (https://www.psypost.org/testosterone-heightens-neural-sensitivity-to-social-inclusion-and-exclusion-study-finds/) Testosterone makes the brain more sensitive to emotional social cues
In a study published in Neuropharmacology, researchers found that testosterone heightens brain sensitivity to both social rejection and inclusion. In a double-blind experiment, healthy men who received a testosterone gel showed stronger brain responses to images of people being excluded or included socially, even though their self-reported feelings of empathy did not change. This suggests that testosterone enhances unconscious, automatic brain reactions to emotional social events, potentially sharpening a person’s ability to detect and process these cues.
The study also revealed that testosterone influenced brain activity even before social tasks began. Specifically, it increased the duration of a brain pattern known as microstate E, which is linked to emotional awareness. Men with the most pronounced changes in this brain pattern also showed greater emotional empathy, particularly when witnessing others’ emotional experiences. These results challenge the stereotype of testosterone as purely aggressive or antisocial. Instead, the hormone appears to fine-tune the brain’s “social radar,” making people more responsive to both positive and negative emotional signals in their environment.

4. (https://www.psypost.org/common-medications-linked-to-subtle-shifts-in-cognitive-performance-study-finds/) Some common medications may subtly affect thinking across large populations
A massive study published in Brain and Behavior suggests that some medications may have small but meaningful effects on thinking and memory when viewed at the population level. Drawing from more than half a million participants in the UK Biobank and two additional cohorts, researchers found that drugs like valproic acid and amitriptyline were associated with slightly poorer cognitive performance. Meanwhile, commonly used non-prescription substances like ibuprofen and glucosamine were linked to modest cognitive benefits. The researchers introduced the concept of a “cognitive footprint” to describe the overall impact of these medications on public mental performance.
Even though individual effects were small, the sheer number of people taking certain drugs means these cognitive footprints could add up to significant public health outcomes. For instance, paracetamol (acetaminophen) showed small but consistent negative associations with cognitive functioning across several domains. In contrast, ibuprofen was linked to performance improvements roughly equivalent to reversing two months of age-related cognitive decline. While the findings are observational and don’t prove causality, they highlight the importance of considering mental performance in both prescribing practices and public health policy.

5. (https://www.psypost.org/scientists-find-evidence-that-an-optimal-sexual-frequency-exists-and-mitigates-depression/) Having sex once or twice a week linked to lower depression rates
New research in the Journal of Affective Disorders found that sexually active adults were less likely to experience symptoms of depression. Analyzing data from over 14,000 adults in the United States, researchers observed that people who had sex at least once a week had significantly lower odds of being depressed—even after accounting for age, physical health, income, and other factors. The greatest benefits appeared to occur at a frequency of one to two times per week, beyond which additional increases in sexual activity did not further reduce depression risk.
This study offers one of the most comprehensive looks at the link between sexual behavior and mental health across the general population. Although the data were collected at a single time point, limiting conclusions about causality, the association was consistent across multiple analytical methods and subgroups. The findings suggest that sexual activity may serve as an important behavioral indicator for emotional well-being, especially in younger adults and those without access to health insurance. The researchers encourage healthcare providers to consider sexual well-being when assessing patients for depression, particularly since disruptions in sexual activity can both reflect and contribute to psychological distress.

(https://www.psypost.org/childhood-adhd-linked-to-higher-fast-food-consumption-in-adulthood/) Childhood ADHD linked to higher fast-food consumption in adulthood
Apr 30th 2025, 14:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547241306570) Journal of Attention Disorders has found that individuals with childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are more likely to consume fast food frequently in early adulthood. However, no significant link was found between childhood ADHD and physical inactivity as these individuals moved from adolescence into adulthood.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is one of the most common developmental conditions diagnosed in children in the United States. It is marked by symptoms such as inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. While much research has examined the immediate challenges ADHD poses during childhood, including difficulties in school and social relationships, fewer studies have investigated how the condition might influence long-term health behaviors. The current study aimed to explore whether children with ADHD are more likely to develop habits linked to chronic health conditions—namely, poor diet and physical inactivity—as they grow older.
The researchers drew on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a large national study that tracked a representative group of adolescents in the United States over several years. The sample included 6,814 individuals who participated in three waves of the study, beginning in early adolescence and continuing into early adulthood. Childhood ADHD symptoms were measured retrospectively when participants reached early adulthood, based on self-reports about their behavior between the ages of 5 and 12. Fast-food consumption and physical activity were measured during adolescence and again in early adulthood using standardized survey items.
To measure fast-food consumption, participants reported how often they ate at popular fast-food chains over the past week. High fast-food consumption was defined as eating at such places at least three times per week in adolescence and four times per week in early adulthood. Physical activity was assessed by asking participants how many times they engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity—like sports or exercise—during the previous week. A cut-off was applied to classify participants as physically inactive based on national health guidelines.
After adjusting for potential confounding variables such as age, sex, race, family income, obesity, depression, and neighborhood characteristics, the researchers found that childhood ADHD was significantly associated with increased fast-food consumption in early adulthood. Specifically, individuals with a history of ADHD were 49% more likely to report high fast-food intake compared to those without ADHD. This association was not found during adolescence, suggesting that the effect of ADHD on diet may become more apparent as young people gain independence and control over their food choices.
Interestingly, the researchers found no significant relationship between childhood ADHD and physical inactivity during either adolescence or early adulthood. Although previous studies had suggested that children with ADHD might be less physically active, particularly those on stimulant medications, this longitudinal analysis did not support that idea.
The findings offer insight into how ADHD may influence long-term health behaviors. One possible explanation for the higher fast-food consumption is that individuals with ADHD often seek immediate rewards and may have difficulty delaying gratification. Fast food, being quick and convenient, may cater to this tendency. Additionally, the transition to adulthood often brings new demands—like jobs, parenting, or education—that may increase stress and time constraints, making fast food a more appealing option. If these individuals grew up in households where fast food was already common, those habits may persist into adulthood.
The lack of a link between ADHD and physical inactivity in this study is somewhat surprising, especially given that prior research has suggested a connection. The authors note several possible reasons for the discrepancy. For one, earlier studies were often cross-sectional and relied on parent reports of children’s behavior, which may not be as accurate as self-reports used in this study. Additionally, many prior studies did not follow participants into adulthood, where patterns of physical activity may change. It’s also possible that children with ADHD engage in physical activity differently, or that other factors like medication side effects or family routines play a role that wasn’t captured here.
There are several limitations to the study. Since ADHD symptoms were reported retrospectively in adulthood, participants may not have accurately remembered their childhood behaviors. Self-reports of fast-food consumption and physical activity are also subject to bias, as people may overestimate healthy behaviors or underreport unhealthy ones. The researchers also lacked data on medication use during childhood and adolescence, which could influence both activity levels and eating habits.
Despite these limitations, the study adds to a growing body of research that highlights the long-term health risks associated with ADHD. It suggests that dietary habits, rather than exercise patterns, may be a key area to target in efforts to support children with ADHD as they grow into adulthood. The authors propose that cognitive-behavioral interventions could help individuals with ADHD better understand and regulate their food choices. In addition, schools and healthcare providers may play an important role by offering targeted education and support to encourage healthier eating in this population.
Future research could build on these findings by exploring how parental behaviors, medication use, and environmental factors influence dietary habits in children with ADHD. Studies using objective measures of activity, like fitness trackers, and more detailed dietary assessments could also provide a clearer picture of how these patterns develop over time.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547241306570) Associations Between Childhood ADHD and Lifestyle Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases From Adolescence to Early Adulthood,” was authored by Yueqi Li, Hong Xian, Lauren D. Arnold, and Jen Jen Chang.

(https://www.psypost.org/homemade-political-deepfakes-can-fool-voters-but-may-not-beat-plain-text-misinformation/) Homemade political deepfakes can fool voters, but may not beat plain text misinformation
Apr 30th 2025, 12:00

A study conducted in Ireland found that political misinformation deepfakes created by an undergraduate student reduced viewers’ willingness to vote for the politicians targeted. However, these deepfakes were not consistently more effective than the same misinformation presented as simple text. The findings were published in (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.70061) Applied Cognitive Psychology.
Deepfakes are synthetic media created using artificial intelligence to replace one person’s likeness or voice with another’s, often in videos or audio recordings. They rely on deep learning techniques to produce highly realistic forgeries. Political deepfakes involve altering videos or speeches of public figures to make them appear to say or do things they never actually said or did.
Such content can be used to spread disinformation, manipulate public opinion, or erode trust in institutions. Political deepfakes are especially concerning during election campaigns, protests, or international crises. They can be hard to detect, particularly when shared widely on social media. While some deepfakes are clearly labeled as parody or satire, others are intended to mislead, incite conflict, defame opponents, or undermine democratic processes.
Study author Gillian Murphy and her colleagues set out to investigate how effective amateur political deepfakes—those created by an “average Joe”—are in shaping political opinions. To explore this, the team enlisted an undergraduate student (one of the study’s co-authors) and asked him to create the most convincing deepfakes he could, using only publicly available tools and information online. He was given no specialized training or equipment.
The researchers wanted to evaluate how these deepfakes influenced false memory formation (i.e., causing viewers to remember deepfaked events as real), political opinions, and voting intentions. They also examined whether viewers were suspicious of the content and if they could correctly identify the stories as fake.
The study involved 443 participants, recruited via Prolific and university mailing lists. The average age was 38, and 60% were women. All participants were native English speakers residing in Ireland.
The student was tasked with creating several deepfakes involving fabricated stories about Irish politicians. The scenarios were designed to be plausible but damaging to the politicians’ reputations. The targets included Simon Harris, the current Tánaiste (deputy prime minister), and Mary Lou McDonald, an opposition leader.
Participants were first shown a true story about Prime Minister Micheál Martin visiting Gaza. This was followed by one of the fabricated deepfake stories and a second true story about the other politician. These real stories served as controls to measure how the false content affected perceptions of the targeted politicians. The deepfakes were presented in three formats: audio-only, video (with image, headline, and text), and text-only.
After each news item, participants were asked if they remembered the event (to measure false memories), and to rate their political opinions (e.g., “I like [politician] personally”) and voting intentions (“I would vote for [politician] if I could”). Once all the stories had been presented, participants were asked whether they suspected any stories were false and whether they could identify which ones were fake.
One week later, participants who had been recruited via Prolific were invited to complete a follow-up study. This second study was nearly identical, but included both fake stories from the original study, a repeated filler story, and one new filler. This design helped the researchers assess whether the misinformation effects persisted over time.
Results from the first study showed that 6% of participants falsely remembered the fake event when it was presented in text-only format. This rose to 14% for audio or video deepfakes, and 25% when the deepfake was created using a paid service (resulting in higher quality). The influence of the deepfakes on political attitudes was modest overall and absent for one of the two stories.
In the case of Simon Harris, the deepfake created with a paid service reduced participants’ desire to vote for him by 23%, while the audio-only version reduced it by 31%. In contrast, deepfakes targeting Mary Lou McDonald had no effect on voting intentions.
About 14% of participants correctly guessed that the study was investigating misinformation. Depending on the story, 76% to 78% of participants correctly identified the fake stories as fake. However, 33% also incorrectly identified the true filler story as fake, suggesting some confusion or heightened skepticism.
In the follow-up study, between 86% and 92% of participants were able to correctly identify the fake story from the first study, depending on whether they had previously seen it.
“Overall, the current study serves as a litmus test for the present-day accessibility and potency of deepfake technology. We encourage other researchers to remain critical and evidence-based in their claims about emerging technologies and resist dystopian narratives about what an emerging technology ‘might’ do in the near future, when they are making claims about what the technology may do today,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the effects deepfakes have on political opinions of viewers. However, it is important to recognize the limitations. Participants were only exposed to a single deepfake (in the first study) or two deepfakes (in the second study), targeting different politicians. This is unlike real-world situations where misinformation—including deepfakes—is often repeated across multiple platforms, appears to come from diverse sources, and is reinforced over time.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.70061) An Average Joe, a Laptop, and a Dream: Assessing the Potency of Homemade Political Deepfakes,” was authored by Gillian Murphy, Didier Ching, Eoghan Meehan, John Twomey, Aaron Bolger, and Conor Linehan.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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