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(https://www.psypost.org/new-virtual-reality-platform-helps-users-overcome-public-speaking-anxiety-and-its-free/) New virtual reality platform helps users overcome public speaking anxiety — and it’s free
Mar 16th 2025, 10:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2024.1506938) Frontiers in Virtual Reality suggests that an innovative virtual reality training platform can help individuals overcome their fear of public speaking. The research found that after just one 30-minute session using the platform, participants reported feeling less anxious and more confident about speaking in front of an audience. The platform, designed by Chris Macdonald, a Fellow at Lucy Cavendish College, University of Cambridge, employs an approach called overexposure therapy, which places users in extreme speaking environments—such as a stadium filled with 10,000 virtual spectators—to build resilience.
Public speaking is often reported as one of the most common fears, affecting people across all age groups and professions. Studies suggest that this fear is becoming more prevalent, contributing to significant negative consequences for mental health, education, and career advancement. People who struggle with public speaking anxiety may avoid opportunities that require them to speak in front of others, which can limit their professional growth and personal development.
Traditional treatment options, such as exposure therapy, have proven effective, but they come with challenges. Exposure therapy gradually introduces individuals to anxiety-inducing situations, helping them build confidence over time. However, access to in-person therapy can be costly and time-consuming, and many individuals avoid seeking treatment due to the fear of confronting their anxiety directly. Virtual reality exposure therapy has emerged as an alternative, providing a safe, controlled environment where users can practice public speaking.
Macdonald’s new platform takes virtual reality exposure therapy a step further by making it more accessible and effective. Unlike previous systems that require expensive virtual reality headsets and guided therapy sessions, (https://www.virtualrealitypublicspeaking.com/) this platform is free to use and compatible with multiple devices, including smartphones. This makes it possible for anyone with internet access to benefit from the program.
“I wanted to build something that is not only highly effective but that can and will be used by those who need it the most,” Macdonald said. “As a result, it was essential to gather diverse user feedback from a variety of settings. The lab cannot develop in a silo, it needs to work closely with end users. Through constant public engagement, we can maximise our positive impact and ensure that we remain deeply grounded in public service.”
To test the effectiveness of the platform, researchers conducted an experiment with 29 adolescents aged 13 to 15. The participants, all from China, were attending a summer program in Cambridge, United Kingdom. The goal of the study was to assess whether using the platform for a short period could improve their confidence and reduce their anxiety about speaking in English.
Before the session, the students were asked to prepare a one-minute introduction about themselves in English. They were then guided through a relaxation technique known as the 4–7–8 breathing method, which involves inhaling for four seconds, holding for seven seconds, and exhaling for eight seconds.
The main training session lasted 30 minutes and exposed participants to increasingly challenging virtual audiences. They started in a simulated empty classroom and gradually worked up to addressing a stadium filled with thousands of photorealistic, animated spectators. These virtual audiences reacted in real time, with features like head-scratching, yawning, and spontaneous distractions such as late arrivals and flashing cameras, creating a highly immersive environment.
At the end of the session, each student gave a presentation in front of a real audience consisting of their classmates and staff members. The researchers collected survey data before and after the session to measure changes in anxiety, confidence, and enjoyment of public speaking.
The results showed a striking improvement in all three measures. Before the training session, 65% of participants described themselves as anxious public speakers. Afterward, that number dropped to just 20%. Confidence levels saw a significant increase, with the percentage of students who identified as confident public speakers rising from 31% to 79%. Enjoyment of public speaking also improved, with the number of students who said they liked speaking in front of others jumping from 34% to 86%.
Statistical analysis confirmed that these changes were not due to chance. The study found a medium effect size for all three measures, indicating a meaningful impact on participants’ attitudes toward public speaking.
One of the most interesting findings was that placing participants in extreme virtual environments—such as a noisy stadium with 10,000 spectators—appeared to make real-life public speaking situations feel easier by comparison. This aligns with the principles of overexposure therapy, where individuals train in high-pressure situations so that more typical challenges feel less intimidating.
Macdonald explained, “Prior to a presentation, most students tend to practice on their own, in a highly-controlled environment—normally in their bedrooms to an ‘audience’ of zero. As a result, it will feel like a significant ‘step up’ when they present to even a small group of people—and even a subtle audience gesture can throw them off. By contrast, students who use the VR platform can practice in a different venue every night to a wide range of highly distracting audiences and fear-inducing scenarios.
“They can, for example, practice in a stadium in front of 10,000 animated spectators, with loud noises, stadium lights, and flashing cameras. Accordingly, a subsequent presentation to a small group can feel like a significant ‘step down’. The data shows that this process not only increases confidence, adaptability, and resilience but also the enjoyment of public speaking. Students are enjoying the challenge of pushing themselves and progressing to each new level. This increased enjoyment is highly encouraging because we know that fear and anxiety are maintained or worsened through avoidance.”
While the study’s findings are promising, there are limitations. The study involved a small sample size of 29 participants, all of whom were adolescents from a specific cultural background. Further research is needed to determine whether the platform is equally effective for different age groups, professional speakers, and individuals with varying levels of social anxiety.
Additionally, the study only measured short-term effects. Future research should explore whether the benefits of using the platform persist over time and whether repeated use leads to long-term improvements in public speaking ability.
There is also room for further refinement of the training protocol. The study combined relaxation techniques with exposure to challenging scenarios, following the traditional approach of systematic desensitization. However, some researchers argue that the key factor in reducing anxiety is simply repeated exposure, without the need for relaxation techniques. Future studies could compare different approaches to determine the most effective training method.
Another avenue for research is the exploration of different settings for self-guided use. The current study was conducted in a classroom environment, but since the platform is designed for accessibility, future studies could test its effectiveness when used at home, in libraries, or in professional training programs.
Macdonald hopes that by making the platform freely available and compatible with widely used devices, it will reach a broad audience and help individuals who might not otherwise seek treatment for public speaking anxiety.
“Speech anxiety and the fear of public speaking impact most people, and it is becoming increasingly more common over time,” he said. “This is concerning because we know that it is detrimental to mental health, physical health, academic attainment, and career progression. Therefore, the problem is prevalent, it is getting worse, it is causing harm, and ultimately, it is capping human potential. However, this no longer needs to be the case. If you or anyone you know would like to become a skilled and confident public speaker, there is now an effective and accessible solution—please do make use of it.”
“It is very promising to see how effective the platform is given that we already know ways to make it even more effective. However, to continue its development, expand it long-term, and launch additional features and platforms, we need funding. Therefore, I encourage philanthropists and sponsors to reach out. We are data-driven and uniquely committed to impact at scale. With the right funding, together, we could transform millions of lives.”
“The platform has immense potential to empower individuals to overcome their fear of public speaking, ultimately enhancing not only their quality of life but also their capacity to become a driving force of positive change in the world,” Macdonald continued. “I set out with a simple but ambitious mission: make the most effective treatment for the most common fear and make it freely accessible to all. With the public launch of the free platform, I believe I have achieved that. Please do use it. It will transform your life and greatly expand your opportunities.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2024.1506938) Improving virtual reality exposure therapy with open access and overexposure: a single 30-minute session of overexposure therapy reduces public speaking anxiety,” was published December 15, 2024.

(https://www.psypost.org/evolutionary-battle-how-sexual-selection-may-have-shaped-mens-upper-limb-length/) Evolutionary battle: How sexual selection may have shaped men’s upper limb length
Mar 16th 2025, 08:00

A series of studies published in the (https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.70010) American Journal of Human Biology suggests that human upper limb length may be a result of sexual selection, as it enhances effectiveness in fighting contests between males. This idea is supported by findings that professional combatants in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) with longer upper limbs tend to be more successful. Additionally, significant relative differences in upper limb lengths between males and females were observed in samples of Croatian adolescents, Singaporean adults, and United States Army personnel.
Sexual selection is a form of natural selection in which traits evolve because they increase an individual’s chances of attracting mates or outcompeting rivals. It occurs through mate choice (intersexual selection), where individuals prefer certain traits in partners, and competition (intrasexual selection), where individuals of the same sex compete for access to mates. This process explains the evolution of features such as peacock tails, antlers in deer, and courtship behaviors, which may not directly aid survival but enhance reproductive success.
Over time, sexual selection can lead to elaborate traits, pronounced differences between sexes, and complex mating strategies. In human males, characteristics such as a strong jawline, a prominent brow ridge, body strength, deep voices, ambition, and a drive to acquire wealth are likely results of sexual selection. For example, a strong jawline and a pronounced brow ridge are associated with higher testosterone levels and perceived genetic fitness. Deep voices signal maturity and dominance, while ambition and wealth have historically increased reproductive success by attracting mates who value stability and protection.
Study authors Neil R. Caton and David M. G. Lewis sought to test the hypothesis that human upper limbs have been shaped by selection to enhance male fighting effectiveness. They note that upper limb length exhibits pronounced differences between males and females in anthropoid primates. In humans, upper limb length appears to correlate with fighting ability, particularly in hand-to-hand combat.
However, because humans typically use weapons and teamwork in conflicts with animals and other groups, differences in limb length might not be crucial in such fights. Instead, the type of contests where limb length is most relevant are male-against-male competitions, which often follow rules and exclude weapons. These fights, commonly involving grappling and wrestling, usually result in submission rather than death. Some studies suggest that human upper limbs evolved specifically to deliver strikes to the head and facial skeleton—common targets in male fights. The study authors hypothesized that human upper limbs may have evolved to maximize the chances of knocking out opponents (the knockout hypothesis) and subduing them.
The researchers conducted four studies. In the first study, they estimated the shoulder breadth of 715 UFC professional combatants (from photographs) and compared this to their fighting performance over their careers, analyzing factors such as striking accuracy, strike defense, grappling defense, and grappling accuracy. Among these fighters, 113 were female.
In the subsequent studies, they examined differences in upper limb length relative to other body proportions across various populations. These included the UFC fighters from the first study, 5,155 Croatian adolescents aged 3–18 (divided into 16 age groups), 100 older Singaporean adults, and 6,068 U.S. Army personnel from the Anthropometric Study of U.S. Army Personnel. All data were obtained from previously published studies.
The results showed that UFC fighters with longer upper limbs were generally more successful in fights. The study authors tested a statistical model proposing that greater upper limb length increases the likelihood of knocking out opponents, which, in turn, enhances a fighter’s success. Analyses supported this relationship, providing evidence for the knockout hypothesis. Another analysis indicated that fighters with longer upper limbs also tended to achieve more submission victories, further contributing to their success.
Results from the other studies revealed that even when controlling for factors such as age, height, lower limb strength, and shoulder breadth, significant differences in upper limb length between males and females persisted. Males had relatively longer upper limbs than females across all studied groups—UFC fighters, Croatian adolescents, older Singaporean adults, and U.S. Army personnel.
“Upper limb length may have been shaped by intrasexual selection, with implications across the biological, anthropological, and psychological sciences,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the differences between sexes in upper limb length and also on the links between upper limb length and fighting ability. However, it should be noted that this study does not provide definitive answer on how male upper limbs evolved. It is entirely possible that evolutionary pressure that led to longer upper limbs in men was the need for throwing power, and therefore hunting success. This is, however, not mutually exclusive with the argument that longer upper limbs make men more successful in fighting contests with other men.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.70010) Intrasexual Selection for Upper Limb Length in Homo sapiens,” was authored by Neil R. Caton and David M. G. Lewis.

(https://www.psypost.org/twin-study-suggests-rationality-and-intelligence-share-the-same-genetic-roots/) Twin study suggests rationality and intelligence share the same genetic roots
Mar 16th 2025, 06:00

A recent study involving twins has shed new light on the relationship between intelligence and rational thinking. The findings indicate that the ability to make rational decisions, often seen as a separate skill, is actually very closely tied to general intelligence. In fact, the study suggests that being irrational, or making illogical choices, might simply be another way of measuring lower intelligence.
Rationality, in this context, means making good decisions based on logic and available information, avoiding common pitfalls like jumping to conclusions or being swayed by gut feelings when they are wrong. Some experts believed that rationality was a unique skill, distinct from intelligence as measured by standard intelligence tests. They proposed that rationality involves a special ability to override our initial, intuitive thoughts and engage in more analytical thinking. This “rational mindset,” they argued, might be missed by traditional intelligence tests.
Others, however, suspected that rationality and intelligence were more closely related, with rational thinking simply being a natural outcome of higher intelligence. To explore this question in depth, (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5MDWBs8AAAAJ&hl=en) Professor Timothy C. Bates of the University of Edinburgh decided to investigate the genetic basis of both rationality and intelligence.
“If ‘rationality is what IQ tests miss,’ then this would be very important,” Bates told PsyPost. “It would imply that a lot of decision making is unrelated to cognitive ability and that we need new tests to prevent and understand some of our most egregious mistakes. So it seemed important. And we could use twins to test this in ways not used before.”
To examine the roots of rationality and intelligence, Bates turned to the Brisbane Adolescent Twin Study. Twins provide a unique opportunity to tease apart the influence of genes and environment on various traits. Identical twins share nearly all of their genes, while fraternal twins, like regular siblings, share only about half. By comparing how similar identical twins are to each other compared to fraternal twins in a particular trait, researchers can estimate how much of that trait is influenced by genetics.
Bates analyzed data from 1,570 individuals, including both identical and fraternal twins. All participants completed tests designed to measure both their general cognitive ability and their cognitive rationality. Cognitive ability was measured using a combination of tests that assessed vocabulary, numerical reasoning, and the ability to identify patterns in sequences of letters and numbers. These types of tests are commonly used to gauge different aspects of intelligence.
Cognitive rationality was assessed using a specific test known as the Cognitive Reflection Test. This test presents individuals with problems designed to trigger an intuitive but incorrect answer. For example, one question asks: “A bat and a ball together cost $1.10. The bat costs $1 dollar more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?” The intuitive, quick answer is 10 cents, but the correct answer, requiring a bit more thought, is actually 5 cents. The Cognitive Reflection Test uses several such questions to see how well people can resist misleading intuitions and arrive at the logically correct answer.
The results showed that both intelligence and rational decision making were strongly influenced by genetic factors. Bates was surprised by “the strength of the heritability of rationality: It is really a great little IQ test!”
In addition, when Bates tested whether there was a separate factor that could account for rational thinking in addition to intelligence, he found that this extra factor did not improve the explanation of how people performed. Instead, the same general mental capacity that drove vocabulary and puzzle-solving also accounted for performance on the rational decision making test. Both sets of scores loaded heavily on a single shared factor. This supports the view that rational thinking is not a separate ability but is actually an indicator of broader cognitive skills.
Bates outlined four key takeaways: “1) We found that irrationality, far from being what IQ tests miss, is one of the best IQ tests available. 2) We found that irrationality, far from being unrelated to genetics and more of a mindset, is among the most heritable of psychological traits. 3) Irrationality is making mistakes which are unnecessary: wrong decisions when we have all the information we need, and some simple logic means there is no reason for the error. We found that realizing what information is available, and applying some simple logic, is almost all of the cause of cognitive irrationality. 4) Cognitive ability explained nearly all of cognitive irrationality, and much of the overlap was genetic.”
Although the study featured a large sample of twins and made use of widely accepted methods to measure intelligence and rational decision making, there were some limitations and open questions for future research. The measure of rational thinking used only a few items and might not capture every aspect of how people make decisions in real-life contexts. Different tests, especially those involving larger sets of problems, could confirm or refine the results. It would also be useful to see how these findings play out in childhood and adolescence, as well as in different cultural settings. Future work could look for influences from personality traits, learning experiences, or motivational factors that might add further detail to how intelligence and rational decision making interact.
“It would be great if rationality research unified with intelligence research,” Bates said. “We have, it turns out, been working on the same problem, in the case of intelligence research for a century, so there’s a lot, I think, that might be of use for other fields.”
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289624000898) Cognitive rationality is heritable and lies under general cognitive ability,” was published in the journal Intelligence.

(https://www.psypost.org/why-narcissists-overuse-social-media-and-how-mindfulness-can-help/) Why narcissists overuse social media—and how mindfulness can help
Mar 15th 2025, 14:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2411468) International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction suggests that the fear of missing out plays a key role in linking narcissistic traits with problematic social media use. However, the research also highlights that mindfulness can act as a buffer, helping to reduce the impact of this fear and, in turn, lessen compulsive social media behaviors. These findings provide insight into the psychological factors that contribute to excessive social media use and suggest that mindfulness-based interventions may help address these issues.
Social media has become an integral part of daily life, particularly for young adults. While these platforms can offer social connection and entertainment, they can also lead to excessive or compulsive use that interferes with personal, social, and professional functioning. This pattern, known as problematic social media use, has been linked to various psychological factors, including personality traits and emotional regulation difficulties.
One personality trait that has received significant attention in relation to social media use is narcissism. People with narcissistic tendencies often use social media as a way to seek validation, admiration, or reassurance. Research has identified two main types of narcissism: grandiose and vulnerable. Grandiose narcissism is characterized by confidence, dominance, and attention-seeking behavior, whereas vulnerable narcissism involves insecurity, sensitivity to criticism, and a need for reassurance. Both types of narcissism have been associated with problematic social media use, but the underlying reasons for this connection remain unclear.
Fear of missing out, a psychological phenomenon where individuals feel anxious about being left out of experiences or social events, has been suggested as a potential explanation for why narcissistic individuals engage in excessive social media use. Those with narcissistic traits may feel an increased need to stay constantly connected and updated on others’ lives, leading to compulsive social media engagement. However, not all individuals respond to fear of missing out in the same way. The researchers hypothesized that mindfulness, a psychological trait associated with present-moment awareness and emotional regulation, could help reduce the impact of this fear and, in turn, lower problematic social media use.
To test these ideas, the researchers conducted an online study with 208 young adults between the ages of 19 and 28. Participants completed a series of self-report questionnaires that measured their levels of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, fear of missing out, trait mindfulness, and problematic social media use.
Grandiose narcissism was assessed using the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-13, while vulnerable narcissism was measured with the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale. Fear of missing out was evaluated using the Fear of Missing Out Scale, and mindfulness was assessed with the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised. Problematic social media use was measured using the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, which captures behaviors such as excessive preoccupation with social media, difficulty controlling usage, and negative consequences in daily life.
The researchers analyzed the data to determine whether fear of missing out explained the link between narcissism and problematic social media use. They also examined whether mindfulness influenced the strength of this relationship.
The study’s results supported the idea that fear of missing out plays a key role in explaining why people with narcissistic traits are more likely to engage in problematic social media use. Both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism were associated with higher levels of fear of missing out, which in turn was linked to greater problematic social media use. This suggests that individuals with narcissistic traits may turn to social media to stay constantly connected and avoid feelings of exclusion.
Importantly, the study also found that mindfulness reduced the impact of fear of missing out on problematic social media use. Participants who scored higher on trait mindfulness were less affected by fear of missing out, meaning they were less likely to engage in compulsive social media behaviors even if they experienced anxiety about missing out on social events. In contrast, those with lower mindfulness were more susceptible to this effect, reinforcing the idea that mindfulness may serve as a protective factor.
These findings suggest that individuals who are more mindful may be better at recognizing and managing feelings of social comparison or exclusion without feeling compelled to respond by excessively using social media. Instead of reacting impulsively to the fear of missing out, they may be able to focus on the present moment and regulate their emotional responses more effectively.
While the study provides new insights into the psychological mechanisms behind problematic social media use, there are some limitations to consider. First, the study was conducted using a cross-sectional design, meaning that all data were collected at a single point in time. This limits the ability to determine cause-and-effect relationships. Future research using a longitudinal design could help clarify whether fear of missing out directly causes problematic social media use or if other factors are involved.
Another limitation is that the sample consisted primarily of young adults from a specific cultural background. Since social media behaviors and psychological traits can vary across different cultures and age groups, future studies should examine whether these findings hold true in other populations.
Additionally, the study relied on self-report measures, which can be influenced by social desirability bias or inaccuracies in participants’ self-perceptions. Future research could incorporate objective measures of social media use, such as tracking screen time or behavioral data from social media platforms, to provide a more accurate picture of usage patterns.
Despite these limitations, the findings highlight the potential for mindfulness-based interventions to help reduce problematic social media use. Training individuals to be more mindful could help them regulate their emotions more effectively, decreasing the likelihood that they will turn to social media in response to anxiety about missing out. By fostering a greater awareness of the present moment, mindfulness may help individuals develop healthier and more intentional social media habits.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2411468) Narcissism and Problematic Social Media Use: A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Fear of Missing out and Trait Mindfulness in Youth,” was authored by Marco Giancola, Matteo Perazzini, Danilo Bontempo, Enrico Perilli, and Simonetta D’Amico.

(https://www.psypost.org/low-quality-father-involvement-leads-sons-to-invest-less-in-romantic-relationships-study-finds/) Low-quality father involvement leads sons to invest less in romantic relationships, study finds
Mar 15th 2025, 12:00

A study published in (https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-025-00426-6) Evolutionary Psychological Science reveals that the quality of paternal investment during childhood significantly influences adult sons’ beliefs about romantic relationships and their willingness to invest in partners.
Parental investment, particularly from fathers, critically shapes children’s psychological and behavioral development. Previous research has established that daughters raised with absent fathers or low-quality paternal involvement develop reduced expectations for male commitment. However, whether sons experience similar effects has been largely unexplored.
Researchers Danielle J. DelPriore and Rebecca Reeder investigated whether lower-quality paternal investment leads sons to believe that men typically invest minimally in relationships and that women require little male commitment. They also examined if these beliefs subsequently reduce sons’ willingness to invest in their own romantic partners, potentially contributing to intergenerational cycles of reduced male involvement.
The researchers recruited 486 heterosexual men aged 18-36 (average age 29) from the United States via Prolific Academic, an online research platform.
The study assessed multiple dimensions, including 1) paternal investment quality: participants rated their fathers’ warmth, supportiveness, and involvement during their first 16 years; 2) father presence: participants reported whether their biological fathers were consistently present or absent during childhood; 3) maternal influence: participants indicated maternal warmth and involvement to determine whether fathers had unique effects beyond mothers’ influence; 4) relationship beliefs: participants completed measures assessing their beliefs about typical male investment in relationships and women’s expectations of commitment, and 5) personal investment willingness: participants answered questions about their own willingness to emotionally commit, spend time with partners, and prioritize relationships.
The researchers found that the quality of paternal investment significantly influenced sons’ relationship beliefs. Sons who experienced lower levels of warmth and involvement from fathers were more likely to believe that men typically invest minimally in romantic partners, assume women require little commitment from men, and show decreased willingness to invest in their own romantic relationships. Importantly, these patterns persisted even after controlling for father presence/absence, indicating that the emotional quality of paternal involvement matters more than mere physical presence.
Paternal influence remained significant even after accounting for maternal warmth and involvement. While maternal warmth was associated with sons’ general willingness to invest in partners, it did not significantly shape their beliefs about typical male investment or women’s expectations. This suggests fathers play a uniquely important role in transmitting relationship expectations and behaviors across generations.
DelPriore and Reeder also found that sons’ relationship beliefs mediated the connection between paternal investment and their own investment willingness, serving as a psychological pathway linking childhood experiences to adult relationship behaviors.
These findings could inform interventions aimed at breaking intergenerational cycles of low paternal investment.
Of note is that the correlational nature of this research prevents causal conclusions about the impact of paternal investment on sons’ relationship beliefs.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-025-00426-6) Quality of Paternal Investment and Adult Sons’ Beliefs About Romantic Relationships” was authored by Danielle J. DelPriore and Rebecca Reeder.

(https://www.psypost.org/first-human-study-sheds-light-on-the-cognitive-and-physiological-effects-of-3-mmc/) First human study sheds light on the cognitive and physiological effects of 3-MMC
Mar 15th 2025, 08:00

A new study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-02042-7) Neuropsychopharmacology suggests that low to moderate doses of a synthetic substance known as 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC) produce mild stimulant effects without serious health consequences in healthy adults. Participants reported increases in feelings of being high, showed improvements in performance on several cognitive tasks, and experienced small changes in heart rate and blood pressure that did not pose medical concerns. The findings provide a first glimpse into how this designer compound behaves in the human body when taken at quantities that recreational users often report.
3-MMC is a synthetic compound that is part of the cathinone family of stimulants. Cathinones occur naturally in the leaves of the khat plant, but chemists have created many versions of these compounds in laboratories. 3-MMC is one of the newer varieties that have appeared on the market in the last decade. Some people use it for its energizing qualities, reporting effects such as increased alertness and a sense of euphoria.
Cathinones as a whole have attracted attention because they have been sold online and in certain retail shops, often before being controlled by law. While pharmaceutical drugs must go through many safety tests before they are approved, these synthetic cathinones often appear first in unregulated products. This creates a large gap in knowledge about their short-term and long-term effects on the body. In the case of 3-MMC, only hospital case reports existed until recently, and these mostly involved individuals who had taken high doses or combined the compound with other substances.
The new study was needed to provide a clearer picture of how 3-MMC behaves when taken by adults who do not use extremely large amounts. Without this sort of research, public health officials and medical providers must rely on emergency room data or anecdotal user experiences, which can be misleading. Studies that give volunteers controlled amounts of a substance under medical supervision can help experts better understand its safety, the kind of effects it produces, and any changes in cognitive function or mood.
“At present, there are more novel psychoactive compounds coming out of clandestine lab than out of pipelines of pharmaceutical industries,” said study author Johannes G. Ramaekers, a professor of psychopharmacology at Maastricht University. “While compounds of the latter are carefully screened for safety and efficacy prior to market release, the former are not. Hence there is an incredible lack of basic scientific knowledge on safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) or designer drugs, such as 3-MMC.”
To carry out their study, the team recruited 14 healthy adults, of whom 12 completed every session. Participants included both men and women and ranged from 19 to 35 years of age. All had some past experience with stimulant drugs, such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or amphetamine. During four separate visits, each participant received either a placebo or an oral dose of 25, 50, or 100 milligrams of 3-MMC in a staggered schedule.
The sessions took place at least a week apart to avoid leftover effects from one session carrying over into the next. While in the lab, participants completed repeated checks of their blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, and cognitive performance for up to five hours after ingesting the substance. They also answered questions about whether they felt any changes in their sense of reality and whether they felt hungry, enjoyed the effects of the compound, or wanted more of it.
The findings showed that 3-MMC led to clear, dose-related increases in heart rate and blood pressure, though the measurements stayed in the normal range. At 25 milligrams and 50 milligrams, the effect on vital signs remained minor, with slightly bigger changes observed at 100 milligrams. Participants reported that they felt high, but that feeling was brief and returned to normal as the chemical wore off, usually within a few hours.
This suggests that “low to moderate dose of 3-MMC are safe to use and produce stimulatory effects,” Ramaekers told PsyPost. “High, excessive doses should be avoided though.”
The participants also completed tests of memory, attention, reaction time, and mental flexibility. Performance actually improved on many of these tasks, an outcome that reflects the stimulating impact of the compound on alertness and speed of thought. The improvement was especially noticeable on tests that involved tracking a moving target or quickly matching symbols and digits. Interestingly, there was no evidence of reduced self-control on tasks that measure impulsive actions, which other substances can sometimes amplify.
Beyond these enhancements, participants reported mild shifts in perception. They scored slightly higher on questionnaires that measure sensations related to dissociation or dream-like states, but the levels were far below what one might see with classic hallucinogens. Reports of unwanted effects, such as aches or fatigue, were rare and not alarming.
At the highest dose, participants gave stronger ratings of enjoyment and a desire to take the drug again, while also experiencing a temporary drop in appetite. That pattern points to the possibility that higher doses could encourage repetitive use, although it remains unclear whether individuals might seek to keep taking more over a short time frame.
“I was particularly struck by the very clean dose-effect relations that were found across a broad range of cognitive and neurophysiological measures,” Ramaekers said. “Though it was expected, it does not always turn out this nicely.”
The researchers acknowledged some limitations to their study. The number of participants was relatively small, which might limit the ability to generalize these findings to a broader population. Additionally, the study only examined the effects of a single dose of 3-MMC. Future research should investigate the effects of repeated doses to understand the safety profile of the drug when used more frequently, as is common in recreational settings. Longer studies are also needed to fully understand how the body processes and eliminates 3-MMC over an extended period.
“The present study focuses on single doses,” Ramaekers noted. “We still need to established safety after repeated doses.”
Looking ahead, the researchers are interested in exploring whether 3-MMC, at these low and seemingly safe doses, might have potential benefits, such as pain relief.
“Cathinones have previously been demonstrated to possess analgesic potential at full doses,” Ramaekers explained. “It would be interesting to explore whether 3-MMC at low doses that are safe and do not induce a challenging subjective experience hold analgesic potential as well.”
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-02042-7) Safety and cognitive pharmacodynamics following dose escalations with 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC): a first in human, designer drug study,” was authored by Johannes G. Ramaekers, Johannes T. Reckweg, Natasha L. Mason, Kim P. C. Kuypers, Stefan W. Toennes, and Eef L. Theunissen.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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