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(https://www.psypost.org/genes-and-childhood-trauma-both-play-a-role-in-adult-adhd-symptoms-study-finds/) Genes and childhood trauma both play a role in adult ADHD symptoms, study finds
Mar 2nd 2025, 08:00

A new study from Brazil has shed light on the complex origins of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, commonly known as ADHD. Researchers discovered that both a person’s genetic predisposition for ADHD and experiences of childhood maltreatment independently increase the likelihood of experiencing ADHD symptoms in adulthood. Furthermore, the study suggests that genetic factors that raise the risk of ADHD may also indirectly increase the risk of a child experiencing maltreatment. The findings were published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02589-3) Molecular Psychiatry.
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is a condition that affects both children and adults, making it difficult to concentrate, control impulsive behaviors, and manage hyperactivity. It is considered a neurodevelopmental disorder, meaning it stems from differences in brain development. People with ADHD may struggle with organization, following instructions, and sitting still. While ADHD often starts in childhood, for many individuals, the symptoms continue into adulthood, impacting their work, relationships, and overall quality of life.
Scientists have long known that ADHD has a strong genetic component, meaning it tends to run in families. However, environmental factors, particularly negative childhood experiences, are also thought to play a significant role. Childhood maltreatment, which includes physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect, is a serious global problem with wide-ranging negative consequences for a child’s development and later life. Previous research has shown a connection between childhood maltreatment and an increased risk of developing ADHD.
To gain a deeper understanding of this connection, researchers in Brazil decided to investigate how genetic predisposition and childhood maltreatment might interact to influence ADHD symptoms in adulthood. They wanted to explore if genes and environment act independently, or if they influence each other in complex ways. Specifically, they looked at two possibilities: gene-environment interaction and gene-environment correlation.
Gene-environment interaction would mean that the effect of genes on ADHD risk is different depending on whether someone has experienced maltreatment or not. Gene-environment correlation suggests that genes may influence the environment a person experiences. This study is particularly important because most previous research in this area has been conducted in high-income countries, while the rates of childhood maltreatment are often higher in low- and middle-income countries like Brazil.
The researchers used data from a long-term study that has been following a group of individuals born in the city of Pelotas, Brazil, in 2004. This study, known as the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort, initially included nearly all babies born in the city that year. The participants have been examined at various ages throughout their lives. For this particular study, the researchers focused on data collected when the participants were 18 years old.
At age 18, the young adults completed a self-report questionnaire called the Adult Self Report Scale for ADHD. This questionnaire asks about symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are typical of ADHD. Mothers or caregivers also completed a questionnaire called the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, reporting on their child’s behavior, including hyperactivity and inattention. Using both self-reports and reports from mothers provided a more comprehensive picture of ADHD symptoms.
To assess genetic predisposition for ADHD, the researchers used genetic information collected from saliva samples taken when the participants were 6 years old. They calculated an ADHD genetic score for each participant. This score, called a polygenic score, is based on the combined effect of many common genetic variations across the entire genome that have been linked to ADHD in large previous studies. A higher score indicates a greater genetic likelihood of developing ADHD.
Childhood maltreatment was evaluated using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale. This questionnaire was administered to mothers or caregivers when the children were 6 and 11 years old. It asks about parenting behaviors that could be considered physical and psychological maltreatment, such as yelling, shaking, or hitting a child. The researchers used the average maltreatment score from ages 6 and 11 to represent overall childhood maltreatment experience.
After gathering all this data, the researchers used statistical methods to analyze the relationships between genetic scores, childhood maltreatment, and ADHD symptoms at age 18. They considered various factors that could influence ADHD, such as sex, skin color, birth weight, intelligence quotient, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal education, family income, household size, and maternal depression, to ensure their findings were not due to these other factors.
The study revealed several important findings. First, the researchers confirmed that the ADHD genetic score was associated with ADHD symptoms in adulthood, as reported by both the young adults themselves and their mothers. This means that individuals with higher genetic scores were more likely to show ADHD symptoms at age 18.
Second, they found that childhood maltreatment was also linked to ADHD symptoms in adulthood. Individuals who experienced more maltreatment in childhood, according to reports from their mothers or caregivers, were more likely to report ADHD symptoms themselves and were also rated as having more symptoms by their mothers at age 18. This was true for both overall maltreatment and specifically for psychological and physical aggression, including corporal punishment.
Third, and interestingly, the study found that the ADHD genetic score was also associated with childhood maltreatment scores. This suggests that children with a higher genetic predisposition for ADHD were more likely to experience maltreatment.
To explore this further, the researchers conducted additional analyses to investigate the mechanism behind this link. They found that ADHD symptoms observed at age 6 appeared to act as a mediator between genetic predisposition and later maltreatment. In other words, children with a higher genetic risk for ADHD might exhibit more ADHD symptoms early in life, and these early symptoms might, in turn, increase the likelihood of experiencing maltreatment. This suggests what is known as an evocative gene-environment correlation, where a child’s genetic traits influence how others, like parents, behave towards them.
However, the study did not find evidence for gene-environment interaction. This means that the effect of genetic predisposition on ADHD symptoms was not significantly different for those who experienced maltreatment compared to those who did not. Genes and environment appeared to have independent effects on ADHD risk.
The researchers acknowledged some limitations of their study. Although the Pelotas birth cohort is a valuable resource, some participants were lost to follow-up over time, which could introduce some bias. The measurement of maltreatment relied on reports from mothers or caregivers and only captured maltreatment at ages 6 and 11, potentially missing maltreatment at other times or reported by other individuals. Also, for ethical reasons, the study did not specifically investigate more severe forms of maltreatment, such as sexual abuse. Furthermore, genetic scores developed primarily in European populations may not be as accurate in predicting ADHD risk in diverse populations like those in Brazil.
Despite these limitations, the study has several strengths, including its long-term prospective design, the use of validated questionnaires, and the inclusion of both self and mother reports of ADHD symptoms. The fact that the study was conducted in a middle-income country like Brazil, where rates of childhood adversity can be high, adds to the importance of the findings.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02589-3) Gene – maltreatment interplay in adult ADHD symptoms: main role of a gene–environment correlation effect in a Brazilian population longitudinal study,” was authored by Luciana Tovo-Rodrigues, Laísa Camerini, Thais Martins-Silva, Marina Xavier Carpena, Carolina Bonilla, Isabel Oliveira Oliveira, Cristiane Silvestre de Paula, Joseph Murray, Aluísio J. D. Barros, Iná S. Santos, Luis Augusto Rohde, Mara Helena Hutz, Julia Pasqualini Genro, and Alicia Matijasevich.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-reveals-three-distinct-mechanisms-of-language-comprehension/) Study reveals three distinct mechanisms of language comprehension
Mar 2nd 2025, 06:00

A recent study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41539-024-00284-0) npj Science of Learning has shed light on how humans comprehend language, revealing that our ability to understand what is said to us is not a single skill, but rather relies on three separate mental mechanisms. Researchers analyzed language abilities in a large group of individuals with language difficulties and found that these abilities naturally group into three distinct categories. This suggests that our brains use at least three different approaches to process and make sense of language, ranging from basic commands to complex sentences.
While we know language is central to our intelligence, the specific brain processes that enable us to understand language have remained a puzzle. (https://www.nature.com/articles/s44184-024-00062-1) Previous research hinted at the existence of different language comprehension mechanisms, and a study focusing on autistic individuals identified three potential mechanisms.
The current study aimed to confirm and expand upon these earlier findings by examining a more diverse group of people struggling with language. The researchers wanted to see if the same three mechanisms would emerge in a broader population and to explore how these mechanisms might relate to known brain functions. They were particularly interested in understanding if these language mechanisms could be linked to different types of mental processes, such as imagining and combining ideas in our minds.
“Around six million years ago, humans diverged from chimpanzees and developed a communication system unlike any other in the animal kingdom. For over 50 years, linguists such as Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker have proposed the existence of a uniquely human language comprehension mechanism, yet its neurological basis remains largely unknown,” said study author (https://www.bu.edu/prsocial/profile/andrey-vyshedskiy/) Andrey Vyshedskiy, a neuroscientist affiliated with Boston University, co-founder of ImagiRation, and author of (https://amzn.to/4h3DjW8) On The Origin of the Human Mind.
“From the age of nine, I was fascinated by how the brain generates language and imagination. At 24, I set out to explore the evolution of these abilities from a neurological perspective. A decade later, I published a cognitive neuroscience model predicting three distinct language comprehension mechanisms: two uniquely human and one shared with other primates. This model diverged from those proposed by Chomsky and other linguists, as it identified two separate, uniquely human language mechanisms.”
“The model predicts that language acquisition occurs in distinct stages: while most individuals develop all three mechanisms, some acquire only the first, and others attain only two,” Vyshedskiy continued. “Those lacking the most advanced mechanism struggle to understand complex explanations, narratives, and fairy tales, while individuals who develop only the first mechanism cannot combine nouns with adjectives. This prediction could be tested by studying language abilities in individuals with language deficits, though such research would require a large sample size of thousands of participants.
“This time, I was fortunate. The cognitive neuroscience model of language I developed two decades ago predicted a novel approach to language therapy for children with language deficits. We implemented this approach in a gamified language therapy app, which quickly gained popularity. In exchange for access to the app, parents provided detailed assessments about their children’s health and language abilities. Over ten years since its launch, parents submitted more than 300,000 assessments.”
Parents or caregivers registered on the app and provided detailed information about their child’s diagnosis, age, and language abilities. Every three months, caregivers filled out a comprehensive questionnaire that included 133 items covering various aspects of the child’s language skills, as well as information about other factors such as screen time, diet, and the caregiver’s education level.
>From the full set of responses, the study focused on 15 language comprehension items. These items asked caregivers to rate how well their child understood different types of language, such as following simple commands, recognizing descriptive words that indicate color or size, and understanding more elaborate instructions found in stories or explanations. For each language item, parents could choose from answers indicating that the ability was very well developed, somewhat developed, or not present at all.
In order to ensure that the analysis focused on children with the ability to speak, the study only included participants whose caregivers reported that their child was capable of using sentences with four or more words. This selection process yielded a group of nearly 18,000 children and adolescents with a wide range of language impairments but with the ability to speak normally. This group included children and adolescents diagnosed with autism, mild language delay, apraxia (a speech disorder), Specific Language Impairment, Sensory Processing Disorder, Social Communication Disorder, Down Syndrome, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. A small group of neurotypical children was also included for comparison.
Vyshedskiy and his colleagues then applied two statistical techniques that are designed to identify patterns in data without any predetermined expectations. These methods automatically organized the 15 language comprehension items into groups based on how often certain skills were found together.
The analysis revealed three distinct groups. The first group included skills related to responding to one’s name, following simple commands, and reacting to praise. The second group consisted of skills needed to understand descriptive words related to color, size, and numbers. The third group involved the more advanced skill of following instructions that require understanding spatial relations, verb tenses, and complex story elements. In other words, if a child had difficulty with one ability in a group, they tended to have trouble with the others in that group as well.
In addition to grouping the language items, the researchers also sorted the nearly 18,000 participants into three clusters that reflected their overall language comprehension profile. One group of children showed strong abilities in all three areas – the basic commands, the descriptive language, and the complex story-like instructions. These children were similar to those typically developing children, and they made up almost half of the study sample. A second group, making up about one-quarter of the participants, showed good understanding of commands and descriptive language but had trouble with more complex, syntactic instructions. The final group, also about one-quarter of the participants, demonstrated the ability to follow simple commands but struggled with both descriptive and syntactic language.
“This study has important clinical, linguistic, and philosophical implications,” Vyshedskiy told PsyPost. “Communication abilities are conventionally categorized by clinicians as nonverbal, minimally verbal, or verbal—a one-dimensional classification that fails to capture the complexity of individual language skills. The identification of three distinct language comprehension mechanisms offers a more nuanced framework for assessing communication levels. A composite approach that considers both verbal abilities and language comprehension level would provide a more precise characterization, ultimately improving language therapy by addressing both aspects of language development.”
“Furthermore, the neurological model of language comprehension could pave the way for pharmacological interventions designed to extend the critical period for language learning beyond early childhood. These advancements could help maximize language acquisition potential, ensuring more individuals attain full language comprehension.”
“Linguists will need to rethink certain aspects of terminology,” Vyshedskiy said. “Since the existence of three distinct language mechanisms was not previously anticipated, current linguistic terminology does not yet accommodate these findings. As Benjamin Lee Whorf observed, language shapes cognition—without precise terms to describe these mechanisms, fully conceptualizing and discussing them remains a challenge.”
“Philosophy faces a similar challenge, as the term imagination is used to describe both involuntary experiences, such as nightmares, and voluntary processes, such as imagining a fairytale. This study provides neurological evidence distinguishing these two forms of imagination. Additionally, the neurological model offers new insights that may reshape philosophical perspectives on human uniqueness.”
“Finally, the discovery of the three language mechanisms offers a framework for understanding the evolution of language over the past six million years,” Vyshedskiy continued. “The first mechanism is largely shared with chimpanzees, the second—uniquely human—likely emerged around two million years ago, and the third, which enables full language comprehension, likely developed just 70,000 years ago.”
Even though the study gathered a large amount of data over many years, the researchers recognize some limitations in their approach. One limitation is that the data relied on reports from parents, which can sometimes be influenced by personal perceptions or hopes about their child’s progress. The study also focused primarily on younger children, as the therapy application is most often used by families with children between the ages of four and eight. As a result, the findings may not fully capture language abilities in older children or adults.
Future research could explore these questions further. One area of interest is the genetic factors that may influence whether a child develops the more advanced language comprehension abilities. By understanding which genes affect the brain’s capacity to process complex sentences and descriptions, researchers may be able to develop better-targeted interventions for language impairments.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-024-00284-0) Three mechanisms of language comprehension are revealed through cluster analysis of individuals with language deficits,” was authored by Andrey Vyshedskiy, Rohan Venkatesh, Edward Khokhlovich, and Deniz Satik.

(https://www.psypost.org/men-experience-faster-alzheimers-progression-after-brain-amyloid-buildup/) Men experience faster Alzheimer’s progression after brain amyloid buildup
Mar 1st 2025, 12:00

A new study published in (https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/alz.14405) Alzheimer’s & Dementia has found that while Alzheimer’s disease is more common in women, men tend to experience a quicker decline in brain health and cognitive abilities once the disease process begins. Researchers discovered that in the years following the initial buildup of amyloid plaques – a hallmark of Alzheimer’s – men showed more rapid increases in key markers of brain damage and faster decreases in brain volume and cognitive performance compared to women. These findings suggest that sex plays a significant role in how Alzheimer’s disease progresses after the earliest biological changes occur in the brain.
Although previous studies have shown that more women than men are diagnosed with dementia, there has been less focus on whether the underlying biological changes and symptoms progress differently by sex. By following a group of older adults over time, the research team hoped to shed light on the pattern of changes in the blood and brain that occur after amyloid-β buildup starts, and to determine if these changes are influenced by a person’s sex. Their aim was to learn more about how the disease unfolds during its early and middle stages, which could help guide future treatments and improve our understanding of the disease’s natural history.
“We know there is a difference in the prevalence in dementia between men and women. However, it is not known whether the rate of disease progression differs based on sex. This is important because it could affect treatment approaches and prognosis,” said study author (https://irp.nih.gov/pi/keenan-walker) Keenan Walker, a tenure-track investigator at the National Institute on Aging.
The research team used data collected over many years from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. This study has been tracking a community of older adults since 1958, with regular visits that include various tests and brain scans. For the current research, the investigators focused on participants who had evidence of amyloid-β accumulation in the brain, as determined by positron emission tomography scans. From this group, they identified 78 participants who had at least one PET scan showing amyloid buildup. The study included 45 men and 33 women.
Once a participant’s scan showed signs of amyloid-β, the researchers estimated the age when this buildup first began. They then compared how blood-based markers, brain volumes measured by magnetic resonance imaging scans, and results of cognitive tests changed in the years after that estimated start of amyloid buildup.
The study uncovered a significant difference in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease between men and women after the initial buildup of amyloid plaques in the brain. Specifically, in the years following the estimated onset of amyloid accumulation, men showed faster increases in blood markers associated with Alzheimer’s pathology (phosphorylated tau) and nerve cell damage (neurofilament light).
These biological changes were mirrored in brain structure and cognitive function. Brain scans revealed that men experienced more rapid brain shrinkage and a quicker progression toward an Alzheimer’s-like pattern of brain atrophy. Cognitively, men demonstrated faster declines in certain abilities, particularly those related to visual-spatial skills and executive functions like planning and decision-making. Although not definitive, the study also hinted that men might progress to diagnosable cognitive impairment and dementia in a shorter timeframe after amyloid onset compared to women.
“Amyloid plaque deposits on the brain is a core feature of Alzheimer’s disease that occurs very early in the disease process,” Walker told PsyPost. “After amyloid plaques accumulate, other components of the Alzheimer’s disease process that are more closely associated with cognitive function, such as tau pathology and neuron damage, begin to emerge.
“We found that after amyloid plaques accumulate, men have an accelerated disease trajectory (as defined by tau pathology and neuron damage), compared to women. This is what blood biomarker data suggests. These finding of steeper declines after amyloid plaque deposition were also supported by neuroimaging and cognitive measures. In summary, although the prevalence of Alzheimer’s dementia tend to be higher in women, the rate of disease progression is faster in men.”
Like all research, there are limitations. The sample size was relatively small, and the participants were primarily white and highly educated, which may limit how broadly the findings can be applied to other populations. “Our findings were only observed in a single cohort,” Walker noted. “Replication in an independent cohort is needed to confirm the results.”
Future research might also explore the biological or environmental reasons why men seem to experience faster changes after amyloid buildup compared to women. Understanding these reasons could lead to more effective, personalized treatments for Alzheimer’s disease.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.14405) Sex differences in the trajectories of plasma biomarkers, brain atrophy, and cognitive decline relative to amyloid onset,” was authored by Cassandra M. Joynes, Murat Bilgel, Yang An, Abhay R. Moghekar, Nicholas J. Ashton, Przemysław R. Kac, Thomas K. Karikari, Kaj Blennow, Henrik Zetterberg, Madhav Thambisetty, Luigi Ferrucci, Susan M. Resnick, and Keenan A. Walker.

(https://www.psypost.org/psilocybin-increases-emotional-empathy-in-depressed-individuals-study-finds/) Psilocybin increases emotional empathy in depressed individuals, study finds
Mar 1st 2025, 10:48

A study conducted in Switzerland examined changes in empathy among depressed individuals following a single dose of psilocybin. Participants who received psilocybin demonstrated substantial improvements in emotional empathy compared to the control group, which received a placebo. These improvements lasted for at least two weeks after treatment. The paper was published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02875-0) Molecular Psychiatry.
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It can be categorized into two types: cognitive empathy (understanding another person’s perspective) and emotional empathy (feeling what others feel). While empathy is essential for forming emotional connections, research suggests that excessive empathy—particularly emotional empathy—can contribute to emotional distress, especially in individuals who frequently absorb others’ negative emotions. As a result, heightened emotional empathy has been linked to an increased risk of depression and burnout.
Previous research suggests that psilocybin can temporarily enhance empathy, particularly emotional empathy, by increasing feelings of connectedness and reducing ego-related barriers. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound found in certain mushrooms (commonly referred to as “magic mushrooms”) and is known for its hallucinogenic effects. It interacts with serotonin receptors in the brain, leading to altered perception, mood, and cognition.
Study author Johannes Jungwirth and his colleagues aimed to investigate the effects of a single dose of psilocybin on the empathy levels of depressed individuals and compare these changes to those observed in a placebo group. They assessed empathy differences at two days, eight days, and thirteen days after treatment. Their hypothesis was that psilocybin would increase emotional empathy and that this effect would persist for up to two weeks post-treatment.
The study included 51 individuals experiencing an acute depressive episode, 19 of whom were men. The participants’ average age was between 36 and 37 years. Those taking psychiatric medication were required to undergo a washout period before the study began. Participants were randomly assigned to receive either psilocybin (25 participants) or a placebo (an identical-looking, inactive medication; 26 participants).
The study involved seven in-person visits to the research lab over a four-week period. The first visit consisted of screening. Participants then attended two psychological preparation sessions—one four days before treatment and another one day before treatment. On the third visit, participants received either a single oral dose of psilocybin or a placebo. This was followed by three additional visits at two, eight, and fourteen days after treatment. During these follow-ups, participants attended psychological support sessions designed to help them process difficult emotions and develop a narrative about their experience. At these sessions, they also completed assessments of empathy (using the Multifaceted Empathy Test) and depression (using the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory).
The results showed that psilocybin treatment led to an improvement in emotional empathy compared to the control (placebo) group. This improvement was evident as early as two days after treatment, peaked at eight days, and was moderate in magnitude. However, no significant differences were found between the two groups regarding cognitive empathy.
At the eight-day and fourteen-day follow-ups, individuals in the placebo group who experienced a stronger increase in emotional empathy also tended to show greater improvements in depressive symptoms. However, this association was not observed in the psilocybin group.
“Our findings provide evidence for the lasting effects of psilocybin on empathy in depressed patients, with significant increases in explicit emotional empathy observed up to 14 days after treatment. Given that conventional antidepressants have been observed to reduce empathy, psilocybin could be a promising candidate for enhancing social cognition and strengthening therapeutic alliance,” the study authors concluded.
This study contributes to the scientific understanding of psilocybin’s effects on depressed individuals. However, it is important to note that the study groups were relatively small, meaning some weaker effects may have gone undetected.
The paper, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02875-0) Psilocybin increases emotional empathy in patients with major depression,” was authored by J. Jungwirth, R. von Rotz, I. Dziobek, F. X. Vollenweider, and K. H. Preller.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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