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(https://www.psypost.org/rationalizing-vaccine-hesitancy-conspiracy-beliefs-arise-after-fear-driven-avoidance-study-suggests/) Rationalizing vaccine hesitancy: Conspiracy beliefs arise after fear-driven avoidance, study suggests
Feb 26th 2025, 08:00

New research published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2024.2381235) Psychology & Health indicates that when people become fearful about vaccines, it can make them less willing to get vaccinated. This hesitancy, in turn, might lead individuals to embrace conspiracy theories about vaccines as a way to justify their decision to avoid immunization.
Vaccines are a cornerstone of modern medicine, credited with dramatically reducing the impact of numerous infectious diseases. They work by training the body’s immune system to recognize and fight off specific viruses and bacteria. Diseases like measles, influenza, human papillomavirus, and Coronavirus Disease 2019 can be effectively prevented or mitigated through vaccination. The World Health Organization estimates that vaccinations prevent millions of deaths each year, not only protecting vaccinated individuals but also reducing the spread of diseases to vulnerable populations.
Despite the clear benefits and widespread scientific consensus supporting vaccination, a significant level of reluctance, known as vaccine hesitancy, persists globally. The World Health Organization has identified vaccine hesitancy as a major global health challenge. Recent studies show that a considerable portion of the population remains hesitant about receiving vaccines, including those for Coronavirus Disease 2019 and routine childhood immunizations like the measles vaccine.
Understanding the reasons behind this hesitancy is essential for improving public health outcomes. One factor that researchers are exploring is the role of conspiracy theories, which often circulate misinformation about vaccines.
Conspiracy theories involve beliefs that powerful groups, such as governments or pharmaceutical companies, are secretly plotting for their own advantage. In the context of vaccines, these theories can include the idea that pharmaceutical companies are hiding dangerous side effects, that vaccines are tools for population control, or that the ineffectiveness of vaccines is being concealed for profit. Belief in such conspiracy theories has been linked to a decreased likelihood of engaging in healthy behaviors, including vaccination.
Previous studies have suggested that emotions can play a role in the acceptance of conspiracy theories. For instance, anxiety has been shown to increase belief in conspiracies. While anxiety generally relates to worries about uncertain future events, fear is a more immediate emotion triggered by a perceived threat. Many messages opposing vaccination often use fear-based appeals, but the direct impact of vaccine-related fear on hesitancy and conspiracy beliefs had not been thoroughly investigated.
To address this gap, a team of researchers led by (https://www.danieljolley.co.uk/) Daniel Jolley at the University of Nottingham, along with colleagues from Northumbria University, conducted a series of studies to examine whether fear related to vaccines can contribute to the acceptance of conspiracy beliefs about vaccines.
“We were interested in understanding how emotions, particularly fear, influence people’s beliefs and decisions around vaccination,” said Jolley, an assistant professor in social Psychology at the University of Nottingham. “Given the rise of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories and vaccine hesitancy, especially during public health crises, it’s crucial to understand the psychological processes behind these attitudes. By exploring the emotional drivers, we hoped to shed light on how fear can shape people’s reasoning and, ultimately, their health-related choices.”
The researchers conducted three separate studies. In Study 1a, they recruited 221 participants online. The participants were divided into two groups. Both groups were given information about a fictitious new virus called Flebilis-Potentia and a vaccine to prevent it. This fictional scenario was used to study vaccine attitudes without raising ethical concerns related to real vaccines.
One group, the low fear group, read an expert opinion stating that people should not be afraid of the vaccine and that severe side effects were rare. The other group, the high fear group, read an expert opinion suggesting that people should feel fear toward the vaccine, although still noting that severe side effects were uncommon.
After reading this information, participants answered questions to ensure they understood the material. They then rated their fear of the vaccine, their belief in vaccine conspiracy theories using a standard questionnaire, and their intention to get vaccinated against Flebilis-Potentia.
In Study 1b, the researchers aimed to confirm the findings of Study 1a with a larger sample of 508 participants, using the same methods and materials.
The researchers designed Study 2 to further explore the relationship between vaccine hesitancy and conspiracy beliefs. In this study, all 220 participants were placed in the high fear condition, reading the expert opinion designed to induce fear about the vaccine. However, participants were then randomly assigned to one of two conditions related to vaccination intention.
One group was asked to consider reasons why they would want to get vaccinated, while the other group was asked to consider reasons why they would not want to get vaccinated. After this, participants again reported their intention to get vaccinated, their belief in vaccine conspiracy theories, and, in this study, also their sense of connection to people who distrust official accounts of events.
In analyzing the data from Study 1a, the researchers found that their manipulation of fear was successful. Participants in the high fear group reported significantly greater fear of the vaccine than those in the low fear group. Importantly, the high fear group also showed stronger belief in vaccine conspiracy theories and were less inclined to say they would get vaccinated compared to the low fear group. Statistical analysis indicated that fear seemed to increase conspiracy beliefs, which in turn decreased the intention to get vaccinated.
Interestingly, the researchers also explored whether fear might first reduce vaccination intention, and that this hesitancy then leads to increased conspiracy beliefs as a justification. They found evidence supporting this alternative pathway as well.
Study 1b largely confirmed the findings related to vaccine hesitancy. Participants in the high fear condition were again less inclined to get vaccinated. However, in this study, the direct link between fear and conspiracy beliefs was not statistically significant. Despite this, the researchers found support for the pathway where fear increased vaccine hesitancy, and this hesitancy was then linked to stronger conspiracy beliefs.
In Study 2, where all participants experienced high fear, the researchers found that those asked to consider reasons not to vaccinate reported lower vaccination intentions than those asked to consider reasons to vaccinate. While there was no direct effect of this manipulation on conspiracy beliefs or connection to people distrusting official narratives, further analysis revealed an indirect effect. Thinking about reasons not to vaccinate reduced vaccination intention, and this reduced intention was associated with stronger conspiracy beliefs and a greater sense of connection with those who distrust official accounts.
“The main takeaway is that fear can lead people to hesitate about vaccines, and this hesitancy can make conspiracy theories more appealing as a way to justify that initial emotional response,” Jolley told PsyPost. “It’s not just about what people believe but how they feel – managing fear and emotional responses could be key to improving vaccine uptake and reducing the spread of conspiracy beliefs.”
“We initially expected that fear would increase conspiracy beliefs first, which would then lead to vaccine hesitancy. Instead, we found a different pattern – fear seemed to directly provoke hesitancy, and conspiracy beliefs seem to emerge afterward, possibly as a way to rationalize the decision to avoid vaccination. This reversed pathway was unexpected and highlights how emotions could lead reasoning, rather than the other way around.”
But the study, like all research, has limitations.
“One major caveat is that establishing clear causal relationships was challenging,” Jolley noted. “While our exploratory mediation analysis offered insights into the process, further experimental work is needed to confirm the sequence of fear, vaccine hesitancy, and conspiracy beliefs. Additionally, emotional reactions are complex and influenced by many factors, which we couldn’t fully capture in our studies.”
Despite these limitations, the research provides valuable insights into the psychological factors that contribute to vaccine hesitancy. It highlights the important role of emotions, particularly fear, and how these emotions can interact with conspiracy beliefs to influence people’s willingness to get vaccinated.
“Moving forward, we aim to explore interventions that help people better regulate their emotions, particularly fear, when faced with health-related decisions,” Jolley explained. “If we can find ways to reduce fear-driven vaccine hesitancy, we may also lessen the appeal of conspiracy theories that stem from those emotions. Ultimately, our goal is to contribute to public health efforts by addressing the emotional roots of vaccine resistance and improving communication strategies.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2024.2381235) The fear factor: examining the impact of fear on vaccine hesitancy and anti-vaccine conspiracy beliefs,” was authored by Daniel Jolley, Lee Shepherd, and Anna Maughan.

(https://www.psypost.org/taking-a-break-from-your-smartphone-changes-your-brain-study-finds/) Taking a break from your smartphone changes your brain, study finds
Feb 26th 2025, 06:00

Even a short period away from your smartphone can lead to noticeable shifts in brain activity, according to new research published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2025.108610) Computers in Human Behavior. Scientists discovered that just 72 hours of smartphone restriction altered activity in brain regions linked to reward and self-control. These changes suggest that our constant connection to smartphones may have a more significant impact on our brains than we realize, potentially influencing how we process rewards and manage impulses.
Smartphones have become indispensable tools in modern life, seamlessly integrated into our daily routines. For many, these devices are not just helpful gadgets but are constantly in use, blurring the lines between necessity and habit. This widespread and frequent smartphone use has sparked interest among researchers who are keen to understand the potential effects of this technology on our well-being and brain function.
Some experts have even raised concerns about whether excessive smartphone use might share similarities with behaviors seen in addictive disorders. While the term “smartphone addiction” is debated among specialists, there’s growing agreement that heavy smartphone use can have negative consequences for both our physical and mental health.
To better understand these potential impacts, researchers decided to investigate what happens in the brain when people take a break from their smartphones. They were particularly interested in how restricting smartphone use affects brain responses related to cues, or triggers, associated with smartphone use, and whether these brain changes are linked to feelings of craving. Learning more about these neural mechanisms could help us understand if excessive smartphone use shares similarities with other behaviors that involve reward and craving, such as gaming or substance use.
Previous studies have shown that individuals who use smartphones excessively exhibit some differences in brain structure and function compared to those who use them less. The new study aimed to explore whether these brain differences are fixed or if they can change with a period of smartphone restriction.
“Smartphones have become an integral part of modern life, but concerns are growing about their potential impact on mental health and brain function,” said study author (https://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/en/zentrum-fuer-psychosoziale-medizin-zpm/klinik-fuer-allgemeine-psychiatrie/ueber-uns/sektionen/kognitive-neuropsychiatrie) Robert Christian Wolf, the deputy director of the Department of General Psychiatry at Heidelberg University Hospital.
“We were particularly interested in how short-term smartphone restriction affects brain activity related to reward processing and attention. Given the increasing discussions around digital well-being, we wanted to explore whether temporary abstinence from smartphone use leads to measurable changes in neural responses.”
To conduct their study, the researchers recruited 25 young adults who regularly used smartphones. Participants were between 18 and 30 years old and were screened to ensure they were not experiencing internet gaming disorder or other significant mental health conditions. The study involved two sessions in a brain scanner, spaced 72 hours apart. In the first session, participants underwent a brain scan using a technique called functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, which measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Before this first scan, participants completed questionnaires to assess their smartphone use habits, craving levels, and mood.
After the first brain scan, participants were asked to significantly restrict their smartphone use for the next 72 hours. This meant minimizing their use of smartphones, substitute devices, and apps for anything beyond essential work, daily tasks, or communication with close contacts. During this restriction period, participants did not have their smartphone usage directly monitored, but they were asked to complete brief questionnaires on a device to track their cravings, well-being, daily activities, and smartphone use. However, the results from these daily questionnaires are being analyzed separately and were not the focus of this particular publication.
Seventy-two hours later, participants returned for a second brain scan, again using fMRI, and repeated the mood and craving questionnaires. During both brain scan sessions, participants completed a specific task designed to examine their brain responses to smartphone cues. In this task, participants were shown blocks of images. Some blocks contained neutral images, like everyday objects. Other blocks showed pictures of smartphones that were turned off and inactive. Finally, some blocks displayed pictures of smartphones that were turned on and in use. By comparing brain activity when viewing these different types of images, researchers could assess how the brain reacted to smartphone-related cues before and after the period of smartphone restriction.
The researchers analyzed the fMRI data to identify changes in brain activity between the first and second scan sessions, particularly focusing on brain regions known to be involved in reward processing and attention. They looked at how brain activity changed when participants viewed smartphone images compared to neutral images, and when viewing turned-on smartphones compared to turned-off smartphones.
They also examined whether these brain activity changes were related to individual differences in smartphone use habits, craving scores, and mood. Finally, the scientists explored if the observed brain activity changes were linked to specific brain chemicals, such as dopamine and serotonin, by using existing maps of neurotransmitter receptor distributions in the brain.
Surprisingly, an analysis of the questionnaire data did not show any significant changes in mood or craving levels after the 72-hour smartphone restriction period. However, the brain scans told a different story. When looking at brain responses to smartphone images in general (both turned-on and turned-off) compared to neutral images, the researchers found increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and the nucleus accumbens after the 72-hour restriction.
These brain regions are known to be important in processing rewards and are often implicated in craving and impulsive behaviors. This increase in activity suggests that even though participants didn’t report feeling more craving on questionnaires, their brains were showing a heightened response to smartphone cues after the break.
“One interesting finding was that after 72 hours of smartphone restriction, we saw increased activation in reward-related brain areas when participants were exposed to smartphone-related cues,” Wolf told PsyPost. “This pattern is similar to what is observed in substance-related craving studies, suggesting that smartphone use may engage the brain’s reward system in a comparable way. However, we did not see significant changes in participants’ self-reported psychological measures, which was somewhat unexpected.”
In contrast, when the researchers examined brain responses specifically to images of turned-on smartphones compared to turned-off smartphones, they found decreased activity in several brain regions after the restriction period, including the middle frontal gyrus and the superior parietal lobule. These areas are involved in various functions, including attention, visual processing, and motor control. The decrease in activity in these regions when viewing turned-on smartphones might indicate that these cues became less attention-grabbing or stimulating after a period of smartphone restriction.
Interestingly, the researchers also found a link between activity in the parietal cortex and craving. This suggests that this brain region may play a role in the subjective experience of craving related to smartphone use. Their analysis also indicated that the observed brain activity changes were associated with systems in the brain that use dopamine and serotonin, neurotransmitters known to be involved in reward and addiction.
“Our study suggests that even a short break from smartphone use can lead to changes in brain activity, particularly in regions associated with reward and self-control,” Wolf explained. “These findings indicate that excessive smartphone use may influence brain function in ways similar to other rewarding behaviors. However, the changes we observed were neural rather than behavioral, meaning that longer-term restrictions or interventions might be necessary to produce noticeable psychological effects.”
As with any study, there are some limitations to note.
“Our study focused on short-term restriction, so we don’t know how long-lasting these neural effects might be,” Wolf said. “Additionally, we did not assess real-life behavioral changes, such as whether participants felt less distracted or more focused. Another key limitation is that we cannot determine whether the observed brain activity changes are a cause or a consequence of smartphone use patterns. More research is needed to explore the long-term effects and potential interventions.”
Looking ahead, the researchers are interested in understanding the longer-term effects of smartphone use on brain activity.
“Our goal is to deepen our understanding of how smartphone use influences brain activity over time, particularly in relation to attention, mood, and cognitive control,” Wolf said. “Future research could examine whether extended reductions in smartphone use lead to measurable behavioral changes or neural adaptations. Additionally, we aim to explore individual differences to better understand why some individuals may be more prone to excessive smartphone use than others.”
The researchers also emphasize that this study is not intended to demonize smartphones.
“Our study is not about portraying smartphones in a negative light but rather about understanding their impact on the brain,” Wolf told PsyPost. “Technology offers many benefits, but it’s important to recognize how our habits shape neural activity and overall well-being. Striking a balance and using digital devices mindfully may be key to fostering a healthier relationship with technology in general and, more specifically, with smartphones.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2025.108610) Effects of smartphone restriction on cue-related neural activity,” was authored by Mike M. Schmitgen, Gudrun M. Henemann, Julian Koenig, Marie-Luise Otte, Jakob P. Rosero, Patrick Bach, Sophie H. Haage, Nadine D. Wolf, and Robert C. Wolf.

(https://www.psypost.org/brain-scans-show-anxiety-impacts-boys-and-girls-face-processing-in-opposite-ways/) Brain scans show anxiety impacts boys and girls’ face processing in opposite ways
Feb 25th 2025, 18:00

New research published in (https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/19/1/nsae085/7908533) Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience reveals that boys and girls show distinct brain activity patterns when looking at happy faces, and these patterns are further shaped by how anxious they feel. Specifically, anxious girls showed less brain activity in certain areas when viewing happy faces, while anxious boys showed more activity in the same regions. This suggests that sex and anxiety both play a role in how young people process positive facial expressions.
Understanding how we process facial expressions is important because faces are a primary way we communicate socially. Recognizing emotions in faces helps us navigate social situations and build relationships. Scientists are particularly interested in the brain mechanisms behind this process because difficulties in understanding facial emotions have been linked to various mental health conditions in both adults and children.
While we know that the ability to recognize facial expressions develops throughout childhood and adolescence, less is known about how individual differences, like sex and anxiety, might shape this development at the brain level.
To investigate these questions, researchers conducted a study with 191 children and teenagers aged 6 to 15 years old. All participants were described as typically developing, meaning they did not have any diagnosed psychiatric or neurological conditions. The researchers recruited participants through community flyers, local events, and online advertisements.
Before the study, parents completed a questionnaire called the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition. This questionnaire helped assess the children’s anxiety levels based on parental observations of their behavior. Specifically, the researchers focused on the anxiety subscale of this questionnaire, which provides a standardized score reflecting the level of anxiety symptoms a child is experiencing.
During the study, each child underwent brain scanning using a technique called functional magnetic resonance imaging. This method allows scientists to observe brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow. While in the scanner, the children participated in a task involving facial expressions. They were shown images of faces displaying three different emotions: angry, happy, and neutral.
Importantly, the task was designed to be implicit, meaning the children were not explicitly asked to focus on the emotions. Instead, they were instructed to indicate whether each face was male or female by pressing a button. This indirect approach to studying emotion processing is known to sometimes elicit stronger brain responses compared to directly asking participants to judge emotions.
The faces used in the study were carefully selected from a validated set of images that included diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. For each emotion type, the researchers used the same identities across different expressions, ensuring that the only thing changing was the emotion displayed, not the person’s identity. During the task, each face was shown briefly, followed by a short break. The researchers recorded both how quickly and accurately the children could identify the sex of the faces, and also measured their brain activity while they were viewing the different expressions.
After collecting the brain scan data, the researchers used sophisticated computer programs to analyze the images. They corrected for head movements during scanning and standardized the brain images to allow for comparisons across individuals. Then, they used a statistical method to examine how brain activity differed when participants viewed angry, happy, and neutral faces. The researchers were particularly interested in understanding how sex and anxiety levels influenced these brain responses, while also taking into account the children’s ages.
The study revealed several interesting findings. First, when comparing brain responses to angry faces versus neutral faces, the researchers observed increased activity in a specific area of the brain called the right fusiform gyrus. This region is known to be involved in face processing, and its activation to angry faces suggests it plays a role in recognizing and responding to emotionally expressive faces. However, the study did not find a similar overall increase in brain activity when comparing happy faces to neutral faces across all participants.
The most striking finding was related to the interaction between sex and anxiety when viewing happy faces. The analysis revealed that in a network of brain regions involved in visual processing and memory, girls with higher anxiety scores showed reduced brain activity when viewing happy faces compared to neutral faces.
Conversely, boys with higher anxiety scores showed increased brain activity in the same brain network when viewing happy faces compared to neutral faces. This means that anxiety seems to have opposite effects on brain responses to happy faces in boys and girls. This interaction was observed in brain areas including regions in the back of the head involved in vision, parts of the temporal lobe associated with memory, and areas in the parietal lobe involved in spatial awareness.
While the study provides valuable insights, it is important to consider its limitations. The researchers only examined three basic facial expressions. Future studies could explore a wider range of emotions, including more complex ones. Additionally, the task was designed to implicitly measure emotion processing, and it did not directly assess how well children recognized the emotions.
The study also did not find the expected activity in the amygdala, a brain region often associated with emotion processing, which is sometimes observed in adult studies of facial expressions. However, other research suggests that the amygdala’s response to facial expressions may develop later in childhood and adolescence. Finally, anxiety levels were assessed based on parental reports, which may not perfectly reflect the children’s own experiences of anxiety.
Future research could build upon these findings by using self-report measures of anxiety from the children themselves, and by examining children with clinically diagnosed anxiety disorders to see if these patterns are even more pronounced. It would also be beneficial to investigate how these brain responses change as children develop, potentially by following the same children over time.
Future studies could also explore the role of puberty and hormonal changes in shaping the relationship between anxiety, sex, and facial emotion processing. Examining more complex interactions, such as how age, sex, and anxiety together influence brain responses to facial expressions, could also provide a richer understanding of this important aspect of social development.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsae085) Anxiety symptoms are differentially associated with facial expression processing in boys and girls,” was authored by Gaelle E. Doucet, Jordanna A. Kruse, Ahrianna Keefe, Danielle L. Rice, Anna T. Coutant, Haley Pulliam, OgheneTejiri V. Smith, Vince D. Calhoun, Julia M. Stephen, Yu-Ping Wang, Stuart F. White, Giorgia Picci, Brittany K. Taylor, and Tony W. Wilson.

(https://www.psypost.org/perceived-peer-norms-not-porn-use-associated-with-negative-views-of-women-among-college-men/) Perceived peer norms, not porn use, associated with negative views of women among college men
Feb 25th 2025, 14:00

What college men think their male friends consider acceptable when it comes to pornography may shape their views about women, according to new research. A study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2023.2233414) American Journal of Sexuality Education found that the strongest link to negative attitudes towards women was not a man’s own pornography habits, but rather his belief that his peers approved of pornography depicting rape. This suggests that peer influence plays a powerful role in shaping attitudes related to harmful content.
Sexual aggression is a serious issue, particularly among young adults. It encompasses a range of harmful behaviors, from unwanted sexual contact and harassment to attempted or completed rape. Sadly, college-aged women are disproportionately affected by sexual aggression, with male perpetrators being most commonly identified. A concerning number of men, between 10% and 29%, commit acts of sexual aggression during their college years. The negative impact of sexual victimization is extensive, affecting psychological well-being, academic performance, and relationships. Therefore, understanding what contributes to men’s likelihood of committing sexual aggression against women is an important area of research.
Previous studies have established that negative attitudes towards women are a significant factor in predicting sexual aggression. These attitudes, which can include beliefs that women are inferior or deserving of mistreatment, often solidify during young adulthood, a time when individuals begin dating and exploring sexual relationships. Researchers are working to identify the factors that contribute to these negative attitudes in college men to better understand and prevent sexual aggression.
One factor that has been examined in relation to attitudes towards women and sexual aggression is pornography. Exposure to pornography, particularly pornography depicting violence against women, has been linked to increased risk of sexual aggression in some studies. Pornography use is common among college men, with a large percentage reporting viewing it regularly. Content analyses of mainstream pornography have revealed frequent depictions of physical aggression against women, such as spanking, choking, and bondage.
A significant portion of pornography also includes depictions of sexual aggression, including rape. Given the widespread consumption of pornography and the prevalence of aggressive content, it is important to understand how pornography might influence attitudes and behaviors, especially in relation to negative attitudes towards women.
While some research suggests a link between pornography use and negative attitudes towards women, the picture is not completely clear. Some studies have not found a connection, and one study even suggested that pornography use might be associated with more egalitarian views. These inconsistent findings highlight the complexity of the issue and suggest that other factors, beyond just the act of viewing pornography, might be at play.
One possibility is that an individual’s own feelings about pornography use, and what they perceive as normal or acceptable among their peers, might influence the impact of pornography on their attitudes. However, research has not yet thoroughly explored the role of these perceived peer norms and personal approval of pornography in shaping attitudes towards women. The new study aimed to address this gap by investigating whether perceived peer norms and self-approval of pornography, along with pornography use itself, are linked to negative attitudes towards women in college men.
To conduct their study, researchers recruited 283 male undergraduate students from two universities on the East Coast of the United States. Participants were contacted via email and those who agreed to participate completed an online survey. The survey was part of a larger study examining issues such as sexual assault prevention, alcohol use, and risky sexual behavior. The men who participated were compensated with a small gift card. The average age of the participants was approximately 20 years old, and the majority identified as White.
The survey included several measures to assess the factors of interest. To measure negative attitudes towards women, the researchers used a well-established scale that asks participants to rate their agreement with statements reflecting negative views, such as “I consider men superior to women in intellect” and “Women, generally, are not as smart as men.” Higher scores on this scale indicated more negative attitudes.
To assess pornography exposure, participants were asked how often they viewed three types of pornography: pornography in general, pornography depicting bondage, whipping, and spanking without clear consent, and pornography showing explicit rape with force. Participants responded using a scale ranging from “never” to “more than once a day.” They were also asked how often they thought the typical male student at their school viewed pornography in general, to gauge perceived peer exposure.
Self-acceptance of pornography use was measured by asking participants if they thought it was acceptable to view each of the three pornography types (general, bondage/aggression, and rape). Responses were “yes” or “no.” Perceived peer acceptance was assessed by asking participants what percentage of men at their school they believed thought it was acceptable to view each of the three pornography types.
In addition to these key measures, the survey collected demographic information such as age, race, ethnicity, and whether the participants were involved in intercollegiate sports or fraternities. This demographic information was used as control variables in the statistical analysis.
The researchers used a statistical technique called multiple regression to analyze the data. This method allowed them to examine the relationship between pornography-related factors (use, self-acceptance, and perceived peer norms) and negative attitudes towards women, while simultaneously considering the influence of demographic variables.
Most participants reported watching pornography a few times a week or month, with general pornography being the most common type. Pornography depicting bondage/aggression was viewed less frequently, and pornography depicting rape was viewed least often. A large majority of participants personally approved of general pornography use, and they believed that most of their peers also approved. Approval rates were lower for pornography depicting bondage/aggression and rape, both personally and in terms of perceived peer acceptance.
In the statistical analysis, when considering all factors together, the researchers found that only one factor was significantly associated with negative attitudes towards women: perceived peer acceptance of pornography depicting rape. This means that college men who believed that a higher percentage of their male peers found pornography showing rape acceptable were more likely to hold negative attitudes towards women, even when considering their own pornography use, personal approval of pornography, and other demographic factors.
Other pornography-related factors, such as personal pornography use across different types, self-acceptance of pornography, and perceived peer acceptance of general pornography or pornography depicting bondage/aggression, were not found to be significantly linked to negative attitudes towards women in the main analysis.
This finding highlights the potential importance of perceived peer norms, especially concerning extreme forms of pornography like those depicting rape. It suggests that when young men believe that their peers tolerate or approve of such violent pornography, it may contribute to the development or reinforcement of negative attitudes towards women. The researchers suggest that this could be because perceiving peer acceptance of rape pornography leads men to believe their peers also endorse broader negative views about women. It’s also possible that men who already hold negative attitudes towards women are more likely to perceive peer acceptance of rape pornography.
It is important to note that study was cross-sectional, meaning data was collected at one point in time. This design cannot determine cause and effect. Future research using longitudinal designs, where participants are followed over time, is needed to understand the direction of the relationship between perceived peer norms and attitudes. The study also did not directly measure sexual aggression, although negative attitudes towards women are a known risk factor.
Despite these limitations, the study sheds light on the important role that perceived peer norms may play in shaping negative attitudes toward women among college men. Rather than personal use or approval of pornography alone, it is the belief that friends accept violent, rape-themed content that appears to predict harmful views.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2023.2233414) Pornography Use, Perceived Peer Norms, and Attitudes Toward Women: A Study of College Men,” was authored by Prachi H. Bhuptani, Shannon R. Kenney, Lucy E. Napper, and Lindsay M. Orchowski.

(https://www.psypost.org/virtual-reality-study-investigates-how-sound-impacts-balance-performance/) Virtual reality study investigates how sound impacts balance performance
Feb 25th 2025, 12:00

Immersed in a virtual park and dodging virtual balls, participants in a new study have helped researchers unravel the role of sound in balance using virtual reality. The researchers discovered that helpful sound direction cues boosted accuracy in a balance task, and this benefit was consistent regardless of the sound delivery method. This suggests simpler, headphone-based systems could be widely used for balance testing and rehabilitation. The findings were published in (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-024-06983-9) Experimental Brain Research.
Previous research had shown that sounds play an important role in keeping our balance, whether we are standing still or moving. However, many earlier studies used either speakers or headphones to deliver these sound cues, leaving open the question of whether one method might be better than the other for practical use.
With applications ranging from clinical assessments to everyday safety, the team wanted to know if a simpler setup using common headphones could be just as effective as more complex loudspeaker arrangements. Their study also aimed to test whether making sounds feel external through a simulation method would further boost performance, especially in situations where visual information was absent.
“Since 2014, when I arrived at NYU, I worked with (https://cs.nyu.edu/~perlin/) Professor Ken Perlin and a team at the Ear Institute of Mount Sinai,” said study author (https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/people/anat-lubetzky) Anat V. Lubetzky, an associate professor at New York University and director of the (https://wp.nyu.edu/ptsensorimotorlab/) Physical Therapy Sensorimotor Lab.
“We have been using head-mounted displays as a method to expand our understanding of balance function and dysfunction, particularly how the brain uses sensory information for balance (sensory integration for postural control). What we know about balance is dependent on the tools we use to measure it and we believed that HMDs can help us expand that thanks to the ability to create more diverse and contextual visual environments.”
“Then in 2018, (https://profiles.mountsinai.org/maura-k-cosetti) Dr. Maura Cosetti asked me if her patients with hearing loss have balance problems. That question has taken us on a journey to discover whether what we hear matters for balance. I partnered up with (https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/people/agnieszka-roginska) Dr. Agnieszka Roginska, an NYU Music Professor of Music Technology, to develop a paradigm to answer these clinical questions. With funding from the Hearing Health Foundation, we developed new applications that combine auditory cues with visual cues and then we received funding from the NIH to study this question in people with unilateral vestibular hypofunction or unilateral hearing loss or healthy controls.”
“That work primarily focused on static balance rather than dynamic tasks and I always wanted to also study the implications to dynamic balance,” Lubetzky continued. “In addition, studies that investigated the influence of sounds on balance typically used either headphones or loudspeakers and we wanted to make a direct comparison. For sounds to be used clinically, we need a simple setup so we’re trying to understand what’s the simplest that can still provide clinically meaningful information.”
For their study, the researchers recruited 24 healthy young adults, with an average age of 26. Participants wore a virtual reality headset that displayed a 60-second scene of a park. In this virtual park, balls were launched from a cannon towards the participant’s head, and the task was to dodge these balls by moving their upper body to the left or right while keeping their feet still.
The speed at which the balls were launched increased in waves throughout the 60-second scene, making the task progressively more challenging. The color of each ball was a visual cue, indicating whether participants should dodge left or right according to a pre-set rule (for example, red ball = dodge right, blue ball = dodge left, or vice versa, with the rule randomly changed to prevent participants from simply memorizing a sequence).
The experiment involved four different conditions, presented in a randomized order. In the ‘Visual-Silent’ condition, participants relied only on visual cues (the ball color) and there were no sounds. In the ‘Visual-Congruent’ condition, helpful sound cues were added; if the visual cue indicated dodging right, the sound cue would also come from the right, and vice versa. In the ‘Visual-Incongruent’ condition, the sound cues were unhelpful and misleading; the sound direction was random and didn’t match the visual cue. Finally, in the ‘Dark-Congruent’ condition, the park scene was completely dark, so participants had to rely solely on the congruent sound cues to guide their dodges.
To deliver the sound cues, the researchers tested four different setups, again presented in random order. The first setup used standard headphones, where spatial audio was delivered directly through the headphones. The second setup used loudspeakers, with 16 speakers placed around the room to create a multi-channel sound environment. The third setup was ‘passthrough,’ where participants wore headphones, but the headphones were inactive and all sounds were played through the loudspeakers in the room. This condition was designed to test the effect of headphone weight alone, without active sound delivery.
The final setup was room simulation, where participants wore headphones that simulated the sound of the loudspeaker setup. This was achieved using specialized software to replicate the acoustics of the sound lab within the headphones, effectively making the headphone sounds feel like they were coming from the room’s speakers.
Throughout the experiment, the researchers measured participants’ reaction time – how quickly they started to move their head to dodge after a ball was launched – and their accuracy – whether they dodged in the correct direction according to the cues. Participants also completed questionnaires before, during, and after the session to assess any motion sickness they experienced in the virtual reality environment.
The results of the study were surprising and went against the initial expectations. Contrary to the idea that headphone weight would slow responses, participants actually reacted faster when wearing headphones compared to loudspeakers in silent conditions. However, this difference disappeared when sound cues were introduced; with sound, reaction times were similar across all sound delivery methods.
Regarding accuracy, participants were better at dodging in the correct direction when provided with congruent sound cues, regardless of whether the sounds were delivered through headphones or loudspeakers. This indicated that people can use helpful auditory information to improve their balance reactions. Importantly, participants generally ignored the misleading incongruent sound cues, maintaining their accuracy at a level similar to when there were no sounds at all.
“This study confirmed that healthy young adults can use congruent auditory stimuli to enhance accuracy and disregard incongruent auditory stimuli such that accuracy is not harmed when performing a dynamic visual choice task,” Lubetzky told PsyPost. “This was true with headphones or loudspeakers and, since this was a replication study, the second sample where we found the same thing.”
Finally, when participants had to rely solely on sound in the dark, their reaction times became faster, especially with loudspeakers, suggesting they were relying more heavily on auditory cues in the absence of visual information. However, accuracy in the dark was reduced compared to when visual cues were also available, indicating that while sound helps, it doesn’t fully compensate for the lack of sight in this task.
“When we designed the study we thought that confusing sounds will make people slower and make more mistakes and helpful sounds will make them faster and more accurate,” Lubetzky said. “We found that any sounds made people faster and helpful sounds made them more accurate but distracting sounds did not interfere with performance. This finding is fascinating to me because it means that healthy young adults can use sounds to improve performance if they’re helpful but can very easily ignore them if they’re not.”
“We saw that this effect is somewhat stronger with speakers than headphones but we’re not quite sure why. We looked at whether the weight of the headphones matters and the answer (at least in this study) was no. We thought we could create spatialized sounds in headphones that will be similar to speakers but that did not do it either.”
Ultimately, the researchers aim to develop balance assessment tools that can be used in various settings and to create effective interventions that harness the power of sound to help people with balance problems and hearing loss.
“Our team aims to build, test and disseminate accurate and accessible assessments of balance that include all aspects of balance and can be used in the lab, clinic and homes,” Lubetzky explained.
“For people with vestibular loss, since our work and those of others have shown the importance of sounds for these patients, we would like to continue and develop assessments that allow clinicians to measure the role of sounds in balance control and interventions that can help sensory integration. We think technology and team science can open the door to that.”
“For people with hearing loss, the findings that sounds are important for balance are only one piece of the puzzle of why people with hearing loss are at an increased risk for falls. My lab is looking to identify all other mechanisms that drive this relationship and find effective intervention (whether it’s hearing aids, cochlear implants, and/or rehabilitation and exercise).”
“This pilot study was funded by a seed award from the NYU Music and Audio Research Laboratory (MARL) center,” Lubetzky added. “I am extremely lucky to work with an incredible interdisciplinary team. At NYU — Computer Scientists (Prof. Ken Perlin, Dr. Zhu Wang), Music Technology (Prof, Agnieszka Roginska), Applied Statistics (Prof. Daphna Harel). At The Ear Institute of Mount Sinai — Physical Therapy and vestibular rehabilitation (Dr. Jennifer Kelly); Neurotology & Otolaryngology (Dr. Maura Cosetti); Audiology (Katherine Scigliano).
“This specific study also involved a talented group of students from diverse disciplines working together: Liraz Arie (PT, PhD), Yi Wu (PhD student Music Technology), Delong Lin (MA, Music Technology), Alvaro F. Olsen (PhD student CREATE lab at NYU).”
“The structure of the team allows us to work on clinically important problem with the latest technology and with multiple perspectives. As a PhD in Rehabilitation Sciences and the director of NYU’s PhD program in Rehabilitation Sciences, I strongly believe that this is how science should be done.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06983-9) A detailed inquiry of the differences between headphones and loudspeakers influences on dynamic postural task performance,” was authored by Anat V. Lubetzky, Yi Wu, Delong Lin, Alvaro F. Olsen, Anjali Yagnik, Daphna Harel, and Agnieszka Roginska.

(https://www.psypost.org/rice-based-baby-food-linked-to-lower-adhd-risk-in-taiwan-study/) Rice-based baby food linked to lower ADHD risk in Taiwan study
Feb 25th 2025, 10:00

An analysis of data from the Taiwan Birth Cohort Study found that complementary feeding with rice-based solid food was a protective factor against the development of ADHD, reducing the hazard of the disorder by 27%. Male sex, low family income, low birth weight, and advanced maternal age were among risk factors for ADHD. The research was published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14100) Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects focus, impulse control, and activity levels. Commonly diagnosed in childhood, it can persist into adulthood. ADHD often becomes apparent when a child starts primary school, as behaviors symptomatic of ADHD conflict with school rules. People with ADHD tend to struggle with inattention, such as difficulty staying focused or following through on tasks. They also tend to experience hyperactivity, including excessive movement or talking, or impulsivity, such as interrupting conversations or making hasty decisions.
Mainstream treatments for ADHD include behavioral therapy, medication, and lifestyle adjustments. ADHD can negatively impact academic, work, and social life, but many individuals are able to manage it effectively. The proportion of children diagnosed with ADHD has increased in recent decades. For example, the proportion of children with ADHD was between 3.3% and 7.5% in the mid-1990s and increased to around 10% in the mid-2010s.
Study author Chiu-Ying Chen and her colleagues aimed to explore the relationship between infant feeding practices and the later onset of ADHD, specifically examining breastfeeding and complementary feeding. Currently, the causes of ADHD are not fully understood. Scientists believe it likely develops through an interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Nutrition and specific nutrients might also play a role.
These authors analyzed data from the Taiwan Birth Cohort Study, “a nationally representative cohort study designed to establish national norms for children’s development.” Participants in this study were 24,200 newborns and their mothers, born in Taiwan in 2005. Since then, study participants have completed six waves of data collection. The data used in this study were collected when the children were 6 months old, 18 months old, and when they were 3 and 5 years old. By the last analyzed data collection point, the number of participants had decreased to 19,721.
The data analyzed in this study included ADHD diagnosis (“Was your child ever diagnosed with ADHD by a physician or professional of child development?”), information about maternal breastfeeding, complementary feeding (solid food feeding), and data about other potential risk factors for ADHD, such as birth order, birth weight, prematurity, disease, maternal conditions during pregnancy, maternal smoking and alcohol use habits, and others.
Results showed that ADHD was diagnosed in 38 children at age 3 and in 169 children at age 5. Eighty-two percent of mothers breastfed their infants after delivery. The mean duration of breastfeeding was 59 days (slightly less than 2 months), but there was significant variability among mothers in this practice. The majority of mothers breastfed their infants for up to 2 months; 26% breastfed for 3 months, and around 10% breastfed for 6 months.
Sixty-four percent of mothers providing complementary feeding to their infants primarily gave them a variety of rice-based solid foods, but not traditional rice porridge. The remaining 44% of mothers gave their infants traditional rice porridge. Approximately half of the mothers also provided fruits and vegetable juice and mash to their infants. One in three mothers gave their children wheat solid foods.
Children who received rice-based solid foods as complementary feeding had a 27% lower hazard of developing ADHD. Additional factors associated with an increased hazard of ADHD were male sex, lower family income, low birth weight, maternal weight, advanced maternal age, child gastrointestinal disease, child seizures, maternal heart disease, and paternal diabetes mellitus.
“Complementary feeding within 6 months is important to protect infants from developing ADHD. The beneficial effect of breastfeeding within 6 months was not observed while controlling for other risk factors. However, owing to the limitation of a smaller number of ADHD cases, further studies should rely on larger observational periods,” study authors concluded.
The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between nutrition in infancy and ADHD. However, the number of children with ADHD in the study was very low. Also, the average breastfeeding period of these infants was 2 months, which is much shorter than the typical duration of breastfeeding globally (6–12 months). This is also much shorter than UNICEF’s recommendation to exclusively breastfeed children for the first 6 months of life.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14100) Association between infant feeding and ADHD development in childhood: a birth cohort study in Taiwan,” was authored by Chiu-Ying Chen, Pin-Yang Shih, Chih-Ting Su, Chi-Fung Cheng, Meng-Chih Lee, and Hsien-Yuan Lane.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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