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(https://www.psypost.org/playfulness-predicts-attachment-and-jealousy-in-romantic-relationships/) Playfulness predicts attachment and jealousy in romantic relationships
Feb 8th 2025, 08:00

A new study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-70979-2) Scientific Reports has investigated how different types of playfulness in adults relate to their romantic attachment styles and experiences of jealousy. The researchers found that certain types of playfulness are linked to more secure attachment styles, while others are connected to different facets of jealousy. Interestingly, these relationships were largely consistent across both mixed-gender and same-gender couples.
While previous research had shown that playfulness is linked to relationship satisfaction and partner preferences, the specific connections between playfulness and key relationship dynamics like attachment styles and jealousy were not well understood. Attachment styles describe our inner models for how relationships work, influencing how we approach intimacy and closeness. Jealousy, on the other hand, reflects how we react to perceived threats to our romantic bonds. The researchers aimed to explore these connections in detail and, importantly, to see if these connections were the same for couples regardless of their gender composition.
“There is robust evidence that adult playfulness plays a role (no pun intended) for romantic relationships,” said study author (https://www.psych.uni-halle.de/abteilungen/differentiell/mitarbeiter/kaybrauer/) Kay Brauer of Martin Luther University Halle. “Prior research has shown that playfulness is a strongly desired trait when people are asked about their ideal partner, playfulness is associated with relationship satisfaction in couples, and partners are similar in their playfulness—even in samples of middle- and older age.”
“In this study, we extended findings toward how people experience and behave in their relationships by examining inclinations to attachment styles (i.e., internal working models of relationships) and jealousy (i.e., perceptions and reactions to threats to one’s relationships) regarding playfulness. We are happy that this is the first study that simultaneously tests questions about playfulness in couples in samples containing mixed-gender and same-gender couples.
For their study, the researchers recruited two groups of couples. The first group consisted of 332 mixed-gender couples, and the second group was made up of 139 same-gender couples of women. The average age was around 28-29 years old in both samples. The mixed gender couples were together an average of about 7 years and the same gender couples for an average of about 3 years.
Each individual in the couple independently completed an online questionnaire, ensuring their responses were not influenced by their partner. The questionnaire included several established measures to assess playfulness, attachment styles, and romantic jealousy.
To measure playfulness, the researchers used a tool that breaks down playfulness into four distinct types: other-directed playfulness, lighthearted playfulness, intellectual playfulness, and whimsical playfulness. Other-directed playfulness describes using playfulness to connect with others and ease social situations. People high in this trait might use humor to defuse tension or playfully express affection. Lighthearted playfulness is about having a carefree approach to life, seeing the world as less serious and more like a game. Intellectual playfulness involves enjoying playing with ideas and concepts, often in a stimulating and curious way. Finally, whimsical playfulness is characterized by a love for the unusual and unconventional, enjoying being seen as a bit quirky or flamboyant.
To measure attachment styles, Brauer and his colleagues used a questionnaire that assesses two main dimensions of attachment: anxiety and avoidance. Attachment anxiety reflects worries about relationship stability and whether a partner will be responsive and reliable. Attachment avoidance describes a tendency to feel uncomfortable with closeness and intimacy, preferring to maintain independence and emotional distance.
Finally, to measure romantic jealousy, the study used a questionnaire that looks at three different types of jealousy: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. Cognitive jealousy involves jealous thoughts and worries about potential threats to the relationship, like imagining a partner being interested in someone else. Emotional jealousy refers to the feelings experienced when perceiving a threat, such as feeling upset or angry. Behavioral jealousy involves actions taken as a result of jealousy, like checking a partner’s phone or questioning their whereabouts.
After collecting data from all participants, the researchers used a statistical technique designed for studying couples, called the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. This approach allowed them to examine how an individual’s own playfulness (actor effect) and their partner’s playfulness (partner effect) related to their attachment styles and experiences of jealousy. They also tested whether these patterns were the same for men and women within mixed-gender couples, and between same-gender and mixed-gender couples.
The study’s findings revealed several interesting connections. First, when comparing same-gender and mixed-gender couples overall, there were very few notable differences. The only exception was that same-gender couples reported experiencing less emotional jealousy on average. This suggests that, for the most part, relationship dynamics related to playfulness, attachment, and jealousy are similar across different couple types.
Looking at the relationship between playfulness and attachment styles, Brauer and his colleagues found that individuals who scored higher in other-directed, lighthearted, and intellectual playfulness tended to report lower levels of attachment insecurity. Specifically, other-directed playfulness was linked to lower attachment avoidance, meaning those who use playfulness to connect with others were less likely to feel emotionally distant in their relationships. Lighthearted and intellectual playfulness were both associated with lower attachment anxiety, suggesting that individuals who are more carefree or intellectually playful tend to worry less about their relationship security.
Intriguingly, whimsical playfulness did not show a significant relationship with attachment styles. Importantly, these connections were primarily within the individual, meaning a person’s own playfulness was related to their own attachment style, but not necessarily to their partner’s attachment style.
Regarding jealousy, the researchers uncovered a more complex picture. All four types of playfulness were linked to lower emotional jealousy within individuals. This suggests that people who are generally more playful, regardless of the type of playfulness, tend to experience less intense negative emotions like anger or upset when faced with potential relationship threats.
However, whimsical playfulness showed a different pattern. Individuals high in Whimsical playfulness reported higher levels of both cognitive and behavioral jealousy. This suggests that while they might experience less emotional upset, they might be more prone to jealous thoughts and behaviors like suspicion or checking up on their partner.
Examining partner effects revealed further nuances. When one partner was high in lighthearted playfulness, their partner tended to report greater cognitive jealousy, indicating increased worries and suspicious thoughts about the relationship. Conversely, when one partner was high in whimsical playfulness, their partner reported experiencing lower emotional jealousy.
“Generally, our findings must be seen as fundamental research and is based on correlations,” Kay told PsyPost. “Hence, we cannot draw inferences about whether playfulness causally predicts jealousy and attachment or vice versa. Accordingly, it is too early to derive recommendations for everyday life.”
“However, from a broader perspective our findings extend the literature on playfulness in relationships by showing again that those higher in playfulness (especially those who use their playfulness in social relationships; e.g., by teasing their partner in a loving way) report less emotions of jealousy and being more open to share their thoughts and feelings with their partner. In short, our findings suggest that, with few exceptions, playfulness goes along with feeling secure in close relationships — irrespective of gender and sexual orientation.”
Looking ahead, the researchers suggest that future studies could explore how playfulness changes over the course of a relationship and how interventions designed to increase playfulness might impact relationship dynamics, including attachment security and jealousy.
“Our long-term goal is learning more about the role of playfulness in adults regarding all phases of close relationships, from finding a potential partner to maintaining stability in relationships,” Kay said. “We hope that our findings can contribute to approaches that might help people to experience well-being in their romantic life.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70979-2) Extending the study of playfulness in romantic life: Analyzing associations with attachment and jealousy in same-gender and opposite-gender couples,” was authored by Kay Brauer, Rebekka Sendatzki, and René T. Proyer.

(https://www.psypost.org/diversity-initiatives-trigger-pro-white-hiring-bias-in-conservatives-study-reveals/) Diversity initiatives trigger pro-White hiring bias in conservatives, study reveals
Feb 8th 2025, 07:00

New research indicates that highlighting diversity in recruitment materials can unintentionally trigger politically motivated decisions that favor White candidates among conservatives, while prompting liberals to favor Black candidates. This suggests that simply signaling a commitment to diversity might not reduce inequality in hiring and could even exacerbate it, particularly among conservative decision makers. The research was published in the (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-10514-005?doi=1) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are interconnected concepts aimed at creating more just and representative environments, particularly in the workplace. Diversity refers to the presence of differences within a group, encompassing various dimensions like race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, socioeconomic background, religion, and ability.
Equity goes beyond simple equality, acknowledging that individuals may start from different places and therefore require tailored support to achieve fair outcomes. It involves addressing systemic barriers and providing resources and opportunities based on individual needs to level the playing field. Inclusion is about creating a culture where everyone feels valued, respected, and has a sense of belonging.
Despite widespread adoption of DEI initiatives in recent years, research consistently shows that biases in hiring and promotion persist. Companies invest heavily in diversity training and recruitment strategies designed to attract a diverse workforce, yet disparities based on race, gender, and other factors remain stubbornly present. This raises questions about the effectiveness of current DEI approaches and whether they are truly addressing the root causes of inequality.
Existing research has shown that (https://www.psypost.org/diversity-initiatives-heighten-perceptions-of-anti-white-bias/) overrepresented groups may perceive DEI initiatives as a threat. Given the increasingly political nature of discussions around diversity, the researchers wanted to explore if DEI-related messages could inadvertently trigger political biases in hiring managers, potentially leading to unfair decisions that contradict the goals of DEI itself.
To explore this question, the researchers conducted three separate experiments involving nearly 4,000 participants in total.
In the first study, researchers wanted to see how diversity messages from a company might influence the hiring choices of White individuals. They recruited over 800 White participants online and asked them to imagine they were hiring managers for a Silicon Valley firm. All participants were given information about a fictional tech company, but some were told the company valued a “diverse workforce,” while others were told it valued a “unique workforce” (the diversity message was absent in this group).
Participants then reviewed job applications for a sales manager position. They saw profiles of four candidates, including a White man and a Black man who were designed to be equally qualified for the job. Participants rated each candidate on qualifications and hireability, and then ranked them from most to least preferred. Finally, after making their recommendations, participants were told who was supposedly hired (either the White or Black candidate) and asked how fair they thought the decision was. Before the study, participants also indicated their political views on a scale from liberal to conservative.
The researchers discovered that when the company emphasized diversity, the political views of the White participants started to matter. White participants who identified as more conservative were more likely to favor the White job candidate. Specifically, in the “diversity message” condition, conservatives rated the White candidate as more qualified and ranked him higher than the Black candidate, compared to liberals in the same condition. This difference based on political views was not seen when the company did not mention diversity.
Furthermore, when told the White candidate was hired in the “diversity message” setting, conservatives considered this decision fairer. However, when told the Black candidate was hired, conservatives saw it as less fair. This suggests that diversity messages, for some White individuals with conservative views, might unintentionally trigger a bias in favor of White candidates.
Building on the first study, the researchers wanted to see if these effects were different for non-White individuals compared to White individuals. In Study 2, they largely repeated the first study’s design, but this time they included both White participants and participants who identified as people of color (BIPOC). The company diversity message and the candidate profiles remained the same. The study again measured candidate ratings, rankings, perceived fairness of the hiring decision, and political orientation.
The findings of Study 2 revealed that the political views of participants influenced hiring preferences in the context of diversity messages, regardless of whether they were White or BIPOC. Similar to Study 1, White participants who were more conservative were more likely to favor the White candidate when the company emphasized diversity. Interestingly, BIPOC participants also showed a similar pattern to some extent. Conservative BIPOC participants in the “diversity message” condition were also more inclined to favor the White candidate in their rankings compared to liberal BIPOC participants in the same condition.
Regarding fairness, both White and BIPOC conservative participants tended to see the hiring of the White candidate as fairer when diversity was emphasized by the company, and the hiring of the Black candidate as less fair. The findings suggest that the unexpected impact of diversity messages on hiring decisions might not be limited to White individuals, but could also extend to some people of color, particularly those with conservative political views.
In the third study, the researchers aimed to get a more detailed understanding of both political ideology and race. Instead of just broadly categorizing participants as BIPOC, they specifically recruited participants who identified as White, Black, Latine, or Asian. They also expanded how they measured political ideology, looking not just at the general liberal-conservative scale but also at different types of conservatism: symbolic conservatism (related to identity and values), economic conservatism, and social conservatism. The basic study design remained similar to the previous studies, using the company diversity message, candidate profiles, ratings, rankings, and fairness measures.
The results of Study 3 provided a more nuanced picture. For White participants, the findings largely mirrored the first two studies: when diversity was emphasized, conservative White individuals were more likely to favor the White candidate in ratings and rankings. This effect was especially strong for symbolic conservatism, suggesting that identity and values played a significant role.
However, for Black participants, the pattern was different. Black participants who were conservative were actually more likely to favor the White candidate when the company did not mention diversity. When diversity was emphasized, this tendency lessened. This was a distinct contrast to White participants.
For Latine and Asian participants, the patterns were less consistent, but there were some indications that Latine participants might show a reduced preference for the White candidate among conservatives when diversity was absent. Conservative Asian participants appeared to have pro-White hiring recommendations regardless of the presence or absence of diversity cues.
Overall, Study 3 highlighted that the impact of diversity messages on hiring decisions is complex and varies depending on both political ideology and the racial/ethnic background of the decision-maker, with Black individuals showing a particularly different response compared to White individuals.
Together, the findings indicate that diversity messaging in recruitment and hiring materials does not automatically lead to fairer outcomes. For White managers, particularly those who identify with conservative values, a pro-diversity message might inadvertently trigger a defensive response that leads to a bias favoring candidates from the majority group.
The researchers discussed several reasons for these findings. One possibility is that diversity cues may be perceived as a challenge to the status quo, which can be unsettling for individuals who hold conservative views that tend to support maintaining existing social hierarchies. For these individuals, the emphasis on diversity might feel like an implicit criticism of their own group, prompting them to compensate by favoring the majority candidate.
“Importantly, for most (but not all) of the outcomes, White participants in the Neutral Condition did not differ in their hiring recommendations depending on ideology,” the researchers wrote. “This suggests that, on the whole, conservatism is not simply shorthand for prejudice or anti- Blackness among White individuals. Our findings, rather, support a more nuanced impact of conservatism that only becomes predictive of race-based decision making when the status quo is threatened, such as when diversity initiatives are present, when a Black candidate is hired over a White candidate, or when the culture at large is seeking to radically shift the racial hierarchy. In other words, White conservatives in our study appear to be reacting to the perceived threat of egalitarian activism, not the merit or competence of Black individuals themselves.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001614) The Presence of Diversity Initiatives Leads to Increased Pro-White Hiring Decisions Among Conservatives,” was authored by Zeinab A. Hachem and Tessa L. Dover.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-find-abnormally-slow-neural-dynamics-in-visual-cortex-of-depressed-individuals/) Scientists find abnormally slow neural dynamics in visual cortex of depressed individuals
Feb 8th 2025, 06:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.061) Journal of Affective Disorders shows that individuals with depression exhibit slower and less variable activity in the part of the brain responsible for processing what we see. Researchers found that the visual area at the back of the brain does not mirror the overall activity of the brain as strongly as it does in healthy individuals, and that this sluggishness is linked with both the severity of depressive symptoms and the slowing of physical movements.
Major depressive disorder is a complex condition characterized by a range of symptoms, including changes in mood, cognition, social interaction, and movement. While visual perception changes, like experiencing the world in “slow motion” or as “gray-colored,” are often reported by people with depression, this aspect has received less attention in research. Prior studies have demonstrated physical and chemical changes in the occipital cortex of individuals with depression, and even suggest that stimulating this brain area with magnetic pulses can have antidepressant effects.
However, the timing of these neural activity changes – how the brain’s visual center changes its activity over time – remained unclear. Therefore, the researchers aimed to investigate the dynamic features of spontaneous brain activity in the occipital cortex, and to determine how it relates to depressive symptoms, especially psychomotor retardation (slowed movements and speech).
“Depressed patients are often very slow in their behavior and psychomotor activity,” said study author (https://www.georgnorthoff.com/) Georg Northoff, a professor at the University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research and author of (https://amzn.to/4gvVKCH) Neurowaves: Brain, Time, and Consciousness. “We therefore ask the following question: Is a primary sensory region like the visual cortex, where all environmental objects and events are processed, abnormally slow in its neural activity in depression? And does that relate to the depressive symptoms?”
To investigate this, the researchers used a technique called resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI. This method allows scientists to measure brain activity indirectly by detecting changes in blood flow while a person is simply resting quietly in the scanner, not performing any specific task. The study involved 49 participants diagnosed with major depressive disorder and 50 healthy control participants with no history of mental illness. The individuals with depression were all inpatients at a mood disorders unit and were experiencing an acute depressive episode.
All participants underwent a thorough clinical assessment by psychiatrists to confirm diagnoses and rule out other medical or psychiatric conditions. The severity of depressive symptoms in the patient group was measured using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, a standard questionnaire used to quantify depression. Importantly, the researchers also specifically assessed psychomotor retardation using a subset of items from this scale that reflect slowed movements and thinking.
The researchers focused their analysis on the visual cortex, specifically examining both the primary visual cortex (V1), which is involved in basic visual processing, and a higher-order visual area called hMT+, known for its role in processing motion.
The core of the analysis involved several key measures. First, the researchers calculated what is known as global signal correlation. This technique assesses how much the activity in a specific brain region, in this case, the visual cortex, reflects the overall activity of the entire brain. A high global signal correlation means that the region’s activity is closely synchronized with the global brain activity, while a low correlation suggests it is more independent.
Second, they examined the functional connectivity of the visual cortex. This measures how strongly the activity in the visual cortex is related to the activity in other brain regions, such as areas in the prefrontal cortex (involved in higher-level thinking) and subcortical regions like the thalamus and hippocampus (involved in emotion and memory), which are known to be affected in depression. They looked at these connections for the visual cortex as a whole, as well as for the specific regions V1 and hMT+.
Finally, to get at the dynamics or speed of brain activity, the researchers used a measure called median frequency. This measure essentially summarizes the dominant frequency of brain activity within a region. A lower median frequency indicates that slower brain activity patterns are more prominent, while a higher frequency suggests faster activity. They calculated the median frequency in the visual cortex and then examined whether this measure was related to the severity of depression symptoms in the patient group. They also analyzed the brain activity in different frequency bands within the infraslow range (very slow brain waves) to see if the observed changes were specific to certain speeds of brain activity.
The researchers observed that individuals with depression showed a reduced global signal correlation in their visual cortex. This means that the activity in their visual cortex was less representative of the overall brain activity compared to healthy individuals.
“The visual cortex neural activity is abnormally slow in depression: it exhibits less changes over time and thus remains more static,” Northoff told PsyPost.
The researchers also found that the visual cortex in the depressed group exhibited increased functional connectivity with several other brain regions, including the retrosplenial cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and areas of the prefrontal cortex. This indicates that the visual cortex in depression is more strongly connected to brain areas known to be involved in emotional processing and the default mode network, a network of brain regions active during rest and self-reflection, which is often implicated in depression. These stronger connections were observed for the visual cortex as a whole, as well as for the specific regions V1 and hMT+.
“I suspected that the visual cortex neural activity would be too slow as based on earlier findings and subjects’ reports/experience of too slow visual perception,” Northoff said. “But I was surprised that the abnormal slowness was so widespread and pervasively relayed to other regions in the brain – the whole brain seems to be too slow in depression showing less changes over time in its neural activity: this relates well to exactly the same kind of experiences in the patients that nothing changes at all.”
When examining different frequency bands, the researchers found that the reduced global signal correlation in the visual cortex of depressed individuals was most pronounced in the faster end of the infraslow frequency range. In other words, the part of the brain’s signal that normally would show more dynamic, faster variations was especially reduced in the depressed individuals.
Most strikingly, the study found a significant negative correlation between the median frequency in the visual cortex and depression symptom severity. This means that individuals with slower brain activity in their visual cortex tended to have more severe depressive symptoms overall, and specifically more pronounced psychomotor retardation.
The researchers acknowledge some limitations to their study. Because they used resting-state fMRI, they could only examine spontaneous brain activity and could not directly assess how the visual cortex responds to visual stimuli. Furthermore, functional connectivity analyses can only show associations between brain regions, not cause-and-effect relationships. It is also important to note that the patient group was taking medication, which could potentially influence brain activity, although the researchers did consider medication load in their analysis and found it did not change the results.
Future research could investigate how the visual cortex in depression responds to actual visual stimuli, particularly fast-changing ones, to see if the observed slowness in spontaneous activity translates to impaired visual processing. Studies could also employ techniques that can establish causality, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, to explore whether altering visual cortex activity can directly impact depressive symptoms.
Long-term, the researchers hope that their findings can contribute to (https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.240099) the development of brain-based markers for depression that could aid in diagnosis and treatment monitoring, and potentially guide the development of more targeted therapies.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.061) Abnormally slow dynamics in occipital cortex of depression,” was authored by Andrea Scalabrini, Sara Poletti, Benedetta Vai, Marco Paolini, Yuan Gao, Yu-Ting Hu, Dong-Yu Liu, Xue Mei Song, Zhong-Lin Tan, Clara Mucci, Cristina Colombo, Francesco Benedetti, and Georg Northoff.

(https://www.psypost.org/racial-and-religious-differences-help-explain-why-unmarried-voters-lean-democrat/) Racial and religious differences help explain why unmarried voters lean Democrat
Feb 7th 2025, 18:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.13058) Journal of Marriage and Family has shed light on a persistent trend in American politics: unmarried voters are more inclined to support Democratic presidential candidates compared to their married counterparts. Researchers found that this difference in voting preferences is largely explained by the distinct racial and religious make-ups of these two groups. Specifically, the higher proportion of Black voters among unmarried individuals, and the lower levels of religious observance in this group compared to married voters, significantly contribute to this political divide.
Political analysts have long observed various divisions within the American electorate, such as differences based on gender, race, and location. However, the influence of marital status on political preference has received less attention in recent years. While studies in the 1980s and 1990s noted that unmarried individuals leaned more towards Democratic presidential candidates, the new research aimed to provide an updated analysis using data from more recent elections, spanning from 1984 to 2020.
The researchers sought to confirm whether this marital divide in voting remained relevant in contemporary American politics and, more importantly, to understand the underlying reasons for its existence and any changes over time.
“Researchers in the 1980s noticed that married Americans were voting more Republican than their unmarried counterparts. In the years that followed, however, this political cleavage went unstudied. The gap between married and unmarried voters has now become an enduring feature of American politics, and the gap between married and never-married voters has grown substantially,” said study author Karyn Vilbig, a PhD candidate at New York University.
To investigate this, the researchers utilized data from the General Social Survey, a nationally representative survey conducted in the United States. This survey collects information from a diverse sample of English- and Spanish-speaking households across the country. For this study, the team analyzed data from surveys conducted between 1985 and 2022, focusing on responses related to presidential elections from 1984 to 2020.
The sample included individuals who reported voting in the most recent presidential election prior to their survey participation. This focus on voters allowed the researchers to examine actual vote choices. They categorized voters into three marital status groups: married, never-married, and divorced. To understand the factors contributing to the marital voting gap, they considered several characteristics known to influence voting behavior. These included race (categorized as non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and other), religious service attendance (ranging from never to several times a week), gender, region of residence (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West), age, education level (from no diploma to advanced degree), labor force participation (employed, retired, or other), parental status (parent or not), and household income adjusted for household size.
The study’s findings confirmed that a marital divide in presidential voting has been a consistent feature of American politics for decades. In every presidential election from 1984 to 2020, married voters were less likely to vote for the Democratic candidate compared to both never-married and divorced voters. Notably, the gap in Democratic voting between never-married and married individuals has significantly widened since the 1980s. In 1984, the gap was only about 4 percentage points, but by 2020, it had widened to nearly 20 percentage points.
The researchers discovered that racial composition was the most significant factor explaining the marital voting gap. Unmarried voters were found to be disproportionately composed of Black individuals, a group that overwhelmingly favors Democratic candidates. In contrast, married voters were more likely to be White, a group that leans less consistently Democratic. Importantly, the study showed that differences in racial make-up accounted for a substantial portion of the voting gap between both never-married and married voters, and divorced and married voters.
Further analysis revealed that among Black voters, there was virtually no difference in Democratic voting based on marital status. This suggests that race is a more powerful predictor of vote choice for Black Americans than marital status. Among non-Black voters, the study found that married people were more likely to attend church regularly compared with unmarried people. Because research has shown that people who attend church more often are more likely to vote for Republican candidates, this difference in religious behavior helped to explain part of the gap in voting patterns.
Another notable finding was that the growing difference between married and never-married voters is partly related to changes in racial composition over the past several decades. The percentage of married voters who are White dropped modestly from 88 percent to 78 percent between 1984 and 2020. However, among never-married voters, the decline was much sharper—from 85 percent down to 60 percent.
At the same time, the share of Black and Hispanic voters, who are more likely to vote Democratic, increased much more among never-married voters than among married voters. These shifts in the makeup of the electorate help to explain why the gap in voting Democratic between married and never-married voters has grown significantly over this period.
“Systematic differences in who enters into and remains married help to explain part of this gap,” Vilbig told PsyPost. “First, unmarried voters are disproportionately Black, and Black voters overwhelmingly support Democrats. Among non-Black voters, differences in religiosity contribute to marital gaps because less religious voters are more likely to be unmarried and to vote Democratic. The gap between married and never-married voters has increased so much since the 1980s in part because never-married voters became more diverse (with a smaller percent White) at a faster rate than married voters.”
To explore other potential explanations, the researchers also considered income alongside race and religiosity. But compared to the substantial influence of race and religiosity, income played a relatively minor role in explaining why married and unmarried individuals vote differently.
“When we saw the voting gap between married and unmarried voters, we suspected that part of it may come from differences in their household incomes,” Vilbig noted. “On average, married households have higher incomes than their unmarried counterparts (often because they have two incomes). We thought that the higher household incomes of married voters might lead them to prefer Republican policies (like lower taxes) while the lower household incomes of unmarried voters might make them prefer Democratic policies (like a stronger social safety net). We find no support for this hypothesis.”
The researchers acknowledged that their study has some limitations. While they identified race and religiosity as key factors, a portion of the marital voting gap remains unexplained by the characteristics they examined. They suggested that unmeasured factors, such as differences in attitudes and values, could also play a role.
“Attitudes about topics like gender and family stand out as strong candidates for explaining the remaining gaps because these attitudes are likely predictive of both marital status and vote choice,” Vilbig said. “The data we used in this study did not allow us to explore such possibilities.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.13058) Unmarried Americans vote more Democratic than their married counterparts: The role of race and religiosity in the marital gap,” was authored by Karyn Vilbig, Paula England, and Michael Hout.

(https://www.psypost.org/is-the-bad-boy-appeal-a-myth-study-investigates-dark-triad-attractiveness/) Is the ‘bad boy’ appeal a myth? Study investigates Dark Triad attractiveness
Feb 7th 2025, 16:00

Can manipulative, narcissistic, or callous individuals be seen as attractive? Some researchers have suggested that Dark Triad traits may enhance short-term desirability, making individuals appear confident, bold, or even seductive. However, a new study using controlled facial images and personality descriptions suggests otherwise. By examining how men and women evaluate the attractiveness of different personality types, this research provides new insights into whether these controversial traits hold any real appeal in mate selection—or if their supposed charm is merely a myth.
The paper was published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12994) Journal of Personality.
The Dark Triad refers to three personality traits that are generally considered socially undesirable: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Individuals with high levels of these traits tend to engage in manipulative and self-serving behaviors. Narcissism involves grandiosity, entitlement, and a need for admiration, often coupled with a lack of empathy for others. Those high in Machiavellianism are characterized by a propensity for cunning behavior, strategic manipulation, and a focus on personal gain, often at the expense of others. Psychopathy is marked by impulsivity, a lack of remorse, and a callous disregard for the emotions or well-being of others.
While these traits can be harmful in interpersonal and social contexts, they may also confer advantages in competitive or high-stakes environments such as business or politics. However, relatively little research has examined how these traits affect mate choice and sexual behavior. Some initial studies indicated that narcissism might be perceived as a desirable trait for both short‐ and long‐term relationships, whereas individuals high in Machiavellianism might be preferable as short‐term mates. Additionally, there are significant individual differences in these preferences.
Study authors Yavor Dragostinov and Tom Booth sought to explore how attractive individuals with different levels of Dark Triad traits are as mates. They hypothesized that persons attracted to males would find high levels of Dark Triad traits the most attractive for short‐term mates, while everyone would find low levels of Dark Triad traits the most attractive for long‐term mates.
They designed a set of vignettes, each consisting of a facial picture taken from the Chicago Face Dataset paired with a description of behavior corresponding to either low, medium, or high levels of Dark Triad personality traits. They conducted a pilot study with 29 postgraduate psychology students from the University of Edinburgh to test whether the behaviors described in the vignettes could be recognized as representing the intended levels of the three Dark Triad traits. The authors retained only those vignettes for which over 80% of pilot study participants correctly identified the presented personality traits and used these in subsequent studies.
The participants in the first study were 475 individuals recruited online through social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram, as well as the survey-sharing site SurveyCircle. Among them, 313 were female. Three hundred twenty participants reported a sexual preference for men, 156 reported a sexual preference for women, and 32 reported being sexually attracted to both sexes.
These participants rated the attractiveness of individuals represented by nine vignettes (3 dark personality traits × 3 levels—low, medium, high) as potential short‐term and long‐term mates. Participants who stated that they were sexually attracted to men viewed vignettes with male faces, while those attracted to women viewed vignettes with female faces. Participants who reported being attracted to both sexes viewed four female and five male faces.
The second study involved 794 participants recruited via Prolific, 345 of whom were women. The average age of participants was 28 years. The study procedure was the same as in Study 1, except that the order of faces displayed to participants was randomized. This randomization meant that the physical attractiveness of each fictitious person was represented by a different face for each participant. In this way, the authors ensured that the overall ratings reflected the described personality traits rather than the attractiveness of the individual pictures.
In the first study, the researchers found that for short-term relationships, those with a female sexual preference (mostly men) generally rated profiles as more attractive overall compared to those with a male sexual preference (mostly women). 
However, contrary to expectations, they did not find that high levels of Dark Triad traits were considered more attractive, and there was no interaction between sexual preference and Dark Triad level. For long-term relationships in the first study, similar trends emerged, with those preferring women again giving higher attractiveness ratings overall, but still no support for higher Dark Triad levels being more desirable.
The second study, with randomized face pairings, yielded some different and notable results. For short-term relationships, and in contrast to the first study and some previous research, lower levels of Dark Triad traits were actually perceived as more attractive than medium or high levels. Again, those with a female sexual preference gave higher overall attractiveness ratings. 
For long-term relationships in the second study, the findings were consistent: lower levels of Dark Triad traits were considered the most attractive by both those with male and female sexual preferences. Across both studies, and particularly evident in the second study, higher levels of Dark Triad traits were not found to increase attractiveness, and in fact, lower levels were generally preferred, especially for long-term commitment.
“The current findings do not provide support for the notion that Dark Triad traits are attractive. The results suggest that men tend to be less selective than women overall when it comes to choosing partners—this occurs for both short-term and long-term relationships,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the possible effects of Dark Triad traits on perceived attractiveness. However, it should be noted that the study used textual descriptions of behavior and pictures of faces that were often randomly paired with the descriptions. This differs from real life, where evaluations of attractiveness are based on a complex set of characteristics, including interactions and consistency across both psychological and physical traits.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12994) The (Un)Attractiveness of Dark Triad Personalities: Assessing Fictitious Characters for Short- and LongTerm Relationships,” was authored by Yavor Dragostinov and Tom Booth.

(https://www.psypost.org/dancing-may-ease-depression-in-parkinsons-disease-by-modulating-brain-activity/) Dancing may ease depression in Parkinson’s disease by modulating brain activity
Feb 7th 2025, 14:00

A new study published in the (https://xmed.jmir.org/2024/1/e44426) Journal of Medical Internet Research has found that regular participation in dance classes can help ease depression in people with Parkinson disease. The research shows that both mood scores and brain activity in a region involved in regulating emotions improved over an eight‐month period of dance practice. These findings suggest that the art of dance may offer a nonmedical way to support emotional well-being in this population.
Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting millions worldwide, and it’s known for its impact on movement. However, many people with Parkinson’s also experience non-motor symptoms, with depression being one of the most prevalent and impactful. Depression significantly lowers quality of life for those with the condition. The standard treatments for Parkinson’s, such as medication and deep brain stimulation, primarily focus on motor symptoms.
While medications exist for depression, they can have side effects, and their effectiveness can diminish over time. Moreover, some antidepressants can interact negatively with Parkinson’s medications. Therefore, finding alternative, non-pharmacological ways to manage depression in this population is a significant need.
Previous research has hinted at the benefits of dance for people with Parkinson’s. Studies have shown improvements in motor skills like balance, as well as positive changes in mood and overall quality of life. Dance is an accessible and low-cost activity that has deep roots in many cultures. Specific dance programs, like Dance for Parkinson’s Disease (DfPD), have been designed to be adaptable to different levels of motor ability, emphasizing creativity and artistic expression.
Prior investigations have mostly relied on behavioral measures, and the few studies that looked at brain activity were limited by small sample sizes or short intervention periods. No study had thoroughly examined the long-term effects of community-based dance classes on brain activity related to emotion in people with Parkinson’s.
“This research project has been an ongoing project initially started in Professor DeSouza’s lab at York University and my interest in this project stemmed from my childhood history of being a dancer myself and also from the research interest that I have in neuroscience,” said study author Karolina A. Bearss. “Combining the two passions is what led me to pursue this project, which all began during my doctoral studies under DeSouza’s supervision and now continues to be a passion and research interest as a professor and researcher of my own lab at Algoma University.”
For their study, the researchers observed a group of individuals participating in weekly, 75-minute Dance for Parkinson’s Disease classes in Toronto, Canada. These classes, held at Canada’s National Ballet School, are structured to include seated exercises, mirrored movements, paired activities, and choreographed sequences. The specific choreography used in the study involved interactions between dancers, fostering social engagement.
Participants were recruited from these ongoing community classes. Out of 34 volunteers, 23 had Parkinson’s disease, and 11 were healthy individuals without Parkinson’s, serving as a comparison group. The individuals with Parkinson’s ranged in age from 52 to 76, with varying lengths of time since diagnosis.
The study spanned eight months, with data collected at multiple time points. To measure depression, participants completed the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), a well-established questionnaire, both before and after a dance class on three separate occasions (March, April, and June).
To examine brain activity, a subset of 15 volunteers (including people with Parkinson’s and healthy individuals) participated in brain imaging sessions using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Due to the longitudinal nature of the study and challenges in maintaining consistent participation, only 7 people with Parkinson’s completed the necessary two fMRI scans and corresponding GDS questionnaires. These individuals were scanned at four different times (September, December, January, and April).
During the fMRI scans, participants were instructed to visualize themselves dancing the learned choreography while listening to the music associated with the dance. This technique, previously used to study brain activity in professional dancers, allowed researchers to examine brain responses related to the dance experience.
The researchers focused on a specific brain region called the subcallosal cingulate gyrus (SCG). This area is known to play a role in emotional regulation and has been implicated in depression. It is a target for deep brain stimulation in treatment-resistant depression. The researchers measured changes in blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signals in the SCG, which reflect brain activity.
The analysis of the Geriatric Depression Scale scores revealed significant improvements in mood and depression symptoms related to dance participation. Specifically, depression scores decreased significantly after each dance class (in March and April) and also improved over the entire eight-month period.
The fMRI data from the 7 people with Parkinson’s who completed the imaging sessions showed a corresponding pattern. The BOLD signals in the subcallosal cingulate gyrus decreased over the course of the study, indicating reduced activity in this brain region.
Importantly, the decrease in brain activity in the SCG was significantly correlated with the reduction in depression scores reported on the GDS. This means that the individuals who showed the greatest improvements in their self-reported depression also showed the largest decreases in activity in this key brain area.
“The relationship that we found between biological (fMRI) and behavioral measures (GDS depression scores) provides the first and early evidence that participation in a program such as DfPD, a noninvasive, widely available intervention throughout the world, can facilitate adaptive plastic changes in a neural network node associated with depression and ultimately positively improve people’s affect (their mood),” Bearss told PsyPost.
“We’re not trying to cure Parkinson’s with dance,” said DeSouza, of the (https://www.yorku.ca/cvr/) Centre for Vision Research and (https://www.yorku.ca/research/connected-minds/) Connected Minds at York University. “What we’re trying to do is to have people live a better quality of life. This goes for both those with the disease, and their families that take care of them — they also get benefits of feeling better.”
While these findings are encouraging, the researchers also acknowledged certain limitations of their study. Notably, this study was observational, meaning that participants were not randomly assigned to a dance or non-dance group. The absence of a control group of people with Parkinson’s who did not participate in dance makes it more challenging to definitively attribute the observed improvements solely to the dance intervention. It is possible that other factors, unrelated to dance, might have contributed to the positive changes. Future research could strengthen these findings by including a control group of people with Parkinson’s who do not engage in dance, allowing for a more direct comparison and stronger conclusions about the specific effects of dance.
This research builds on Bearss and DeSouza’s (https://news.yorku.ca/2021/07/07/dancing-with-music-can-halt-most-debilitating-symptoms-of-parkinsons-disease/) three-year-long study, which demonstrated that dance training can improve motor control, enhance mood, and boost everyday functioning for people with Parkinson disease.
Looking ahead, the researchers are interested in exploring the potential of dance for a broader range of mental health conditions, such as anxiety. They also plan to investigate the long-term effects of dance on brain health and the progression of Parkinson’s disease.
“Our long-term goal is to continue this line of research for another 10 years or more, while expanding it to include additional populations, such as those with depression and anxiety,” Bearss explained.
“Future research intends to extend our brain imaging studies to explore the benefits that dance may offer individuals with depression. Since the results of this study showed reduced activity in the SCG—the depression node—we can now consider expanding our work to other clinical populations, including those with major depressive disorder and anxiety. The SCG is part of a network that connects to frontal brain regions and plays a role in the brain’s emotional circuitry, which largely depends on dopaminergic projections from the basal ganglia, the area affected in people with Parkinson’s disease.”
“In addition, we hope to explore the benefits of dance on sleep cycles in people with Parkinson’s disease, as disturbances in sleep may accelerate the disease and its progression,” Bearss added. “Our overall goal is to identify the neural network involved in slowing Parkinson’s disease progression with dance—what we refer to as multisensory training—by examining three functional and structural neural circuits related to anxiety, depression, and sleep that may contribute to disease onset and progression.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.2196/44426) Impact of Weekly Community-Based Dance Training Over 8 Months on Depression and Blood Oxygen Level–Dependent Signals in the Subcallosal Cingulate Gyrus for People With Parkinson Disease: Observational Study,” was authored by Karolina A. Bearss, Rebecca E. Barnstaple, Rachel J. Bar, and Joseph F. X. DeSouza.

(https://www.psypost.org/popular-antidepressants-dont-appear-to-dull-romantic-love-study-finds/) Popular antidepressants don’t appear to dull romantic love, study finds
Feb 7th 2025, 12:00

A new study has found that the use of a common type of antidepressant medication is not associated with diminished feelings of romantic love. The research, published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.103) Journal of Affective Disorders, provides the first empirical evidence addressing long-standing concerns that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors might interfere with people’s ability to experience passionate love. The findings suggest that individuals experiencing romantic love who are taking these medications report similar levels of love intensity, obsessive thinking about their partner, commitment, and sexual frequency as those not taking the medications.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a type of medication commonly prescribed to treat mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety disorders. They work by targeting a specific neurotransmitter in the brain called serotonin. SSRIs achieve this by slowing down the reabsorption of serotonin by nerve cells, which allows more serotonin to be available in the brain.
There had been ongoing speculation and theoretical arguments suggesting that SSRIs might negatively affect romantic love. The idea was that by altering serotonin levels, these medications could potentially diminish the experience of being in love, affecting aspects such as passion, commitment, and even sexual desire within a romantic relationship. Despite these concerns, there was a lack of empirical research directly testing this hypothesis. Until now, no studies had quantitatively examined whether people taking SSRIs actually reported different experiences of romantic love compared to those not taking them.
“For more than 15 years, researchers have confidently stated that SSRIs negatively affect romantic love, but this has never been proven. In 2022, Phil Kavanagh from the University of Canberra and the University of South Australia and I collected the world’s largest dataset of people experiencing romantic love. In that survey, we asked participants if they were taking SSRIs. This gave us the opportunity to finally test this theory,” said study author (https://adambode.net/) Adam Bode, a PhD student at the Australian National University.
The survey, called the Romantic Love Survey 2022, included responses from over 1,500 individuals who self-identified as being “in love.” From this larger group, the researchers focused on 810 young adults (aged approximately 18 to 30) who met specific criteria: they had been in love for 23 months or less, and they scored high on a well-established measure of passionate love, called the Passionate Love Scale. These criteria were used to ensure that the participants were truly experiencing the intense, early stages of romantic love rather than a more settled, long-term form of love. The participants came from 33 different countries, although the largest numbers were from South Africa, Poland, the United Kingdom, Portugal, and Mexico.
Participants were asked whether they were currently taking SSRIs. They also answered questions about their biological sex (male or female) and whether they were experiencing moderate to severe symptoms of anxiety, worry, or depression. These factors were considered because they could influence both medication use and feelings of romantic love.
To measure different aspects of romantic love, the researchers used several established questionnaires and single-item questions. The Passionate Love Scale provided an overall measure of the intensity of romantic love, capturing the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects of this experience. Obsessive thinking was assessed by asking participants what percentage of their waking hours they spent thinking about their loved one. Commitment was measured using a subscale of the Triangular Love Scale, which assesses the cognitive decision to maintain the relationship. Finally, the frequency of sex was assessed by asking participants how many times per week they had sex with their partner.
Out of the 810 participants, 76 (about 9 percent) reported taking SSRIs. The statistical analysis revealed that two factors were significantly associated with medication use: biological sex and mental health problems. Males were less likely to be taking these antidepressants than females, and individuals experiencing moderate to severe mental health problems were more likely to be taking them. These findings are consistent with known patterns of antidepressant use.
However, none of the measures of romantic love—intensity of love, obsessive thinking, commitment, or sexual frequency—were significantly associated with antidepressant use. In other words, individuals taking these medications reported similar levels of these romantic love experiences as those who were not taking them. This finding directly challenges the hypothesis that these medications would diminish these aspects of romantic love.
The absence of a link between SSRI use and diminished romantic love did not come as a surprise.
“To be honest, none of the authors were particularly convinced by the theory that SSRIs negatively affect romantic love,” Bode told PsyPost. “It was based on an outdated theory of mammalian reproduction proposed by Helen Fisher 25 years ago. It also made assumptions about the role of serotonin in obsessive thinking about a loved one—a characteristic of romantic love—that we have known to be misguided for more than 10 years.”
“The only thing that surprised us was that there was no difference in frequency of sex between the two groups. Sexual dysfunction is one of the most common side effects of SSRIs, but our measure of sex suggested that if people experience sexual dysfunction, it doesn’t interfere with the number of times per week they engage in sex.”
However, like any study, this one has its limitations. The research focused solely on young adults, most of whom were current students from relatively well-off countries. This means that the results might not apply to people from different age groups or those living in other parts of the world with different economic circumstances. Moreover, the study only asked participants if they were currently taking selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors without collecting additional details such as the dosage, the length of time they had been taking the medication, or the specific reasons for their prescription. These factors could be important in understanding the full impact of these drugs on love and relationships.
“This was an opportunistic sample,” Bode noted. “All participants were in love. It is possible that some people taking SSRIs experience extreme side effects and fall out of love, and these people weren’t captured in our sample. It will require further research to investigate if such people exist and to understand the experiences they have.”
“We can’t say that SSRIs don’t affect romantic love in some people. There is a portion of individuals who take SSRIs and experience extreme negative side effects like emotional blunting and sexual dysfunction. Our study, however, demonstrates that generally SSRIs don’t have the kind of negative side effects on romantic love that many have suggested. This probably means that, for the majority of people, they don’t need to be worried about SSRIs taking away that ‘spark.'”
Future research could benefit from a design that follows individuals over time, which would help determine if there are any changes in the experience of passionate love as people start or continue taking these medications.
“My co-authors and I are continuing with a number of articles stemming from the Romantic Love Survey 2022,” Bode said. “We’ve learned a lot about romantic love from that dataset, and there’s still more to learn.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.103) SSRI use is not associated with the intensity of romantic love, obsessive thinking about a loved one, commitment, or sexual frequency in a sample of young adults experiencing romantic love,” was authored by Adam Bode, Marta Kowal, Fabio Cannas Aghedu, and Phillip S. Kavanagh.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-links-poor-sleep-quality-to-cannabis-related-memory-issues/) New study links poor sleep quality to cannabis-related memory issues
Feb 7th 2025, 10:00

A new study published in (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00952990.2024.2362832) The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse has discovered that sleep problems may be a key factor in how cannabis use affects memory, highlighting the importance of sleep quality for cognitive health.
THC, the psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, has been linked to memory impairments by disrupting brain regions like the hippocampus, which is essential for learning and recall. At the same time, long-term cannabis use has been associated with sleep disturbances, such as reduced REM sleep and deep sleep – both of which are necessary for processing and storing memories.
Since both memory and sleep are separately known to be affected by cannabis, a research team led by Tracy Brown from the University of Texas at Dallas in collaboration with colleagues in Amsterdam wanted to explore how these two factors are connected. They also wanted to investigate whether men and women experience these effects differently.
Brown and colleagues analyzed data from 228 adults aged 18 to 31 years old, including 141 people diagnosed with cannabis use disorder (using cannabis over 5 days per week) and 87 who did not use cannabis frequently.
Participants completed self-reported sleep assessments and underwent cognitive tests that measured their memory abilities. One test was on visual memory, which is the ability to recall and recognize objects after seeing them. Verbal memory was also examined, which is the ability to remember words and language-based information.
The results highlighted a clear pattern: people with cannabis use disorder had worse sleep quality, and this in turn was linked to poorer performance in visual memory tasks. In other words, sleep problems appeared to be the reason why cannabis users struggled with remembering and recognizing visual information.
However, the study did not find the same link between sleep and verbal memory. This suggests that cannabis use may impact different types of memory in different ways.
Surprisingly, the researchers also found that sex did not play a significant role in these effects. Despite previous studies suggesting that men and women experience sleep disturbances differently, both sexes showed similar patterns in this study.
“These initial findings suggesting a role of sleep between cannabis use disorder and memory function are important to consider for the optimization of cannabis’ potential therapeutic effect on sleep, while mitigating potential harm. These initial findings also indicate that sleep may be an important entry point to improve cognitive function in those with cannabis use disorder,” the authors concluded.
Although this study provides valuable insights, it does have some limitations. For example the study was of a cross-sectional design, meaning it only looked at data from a single point in time, making it impossible to determine cause and effect.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2024.2362832) The Role of Sleep in the Link Between Cannabis Use and Memory Function: Evidence from a Cross-Sectional Study,” was authored by T. Brown, R. A. Ackerman, E. Kroon, L. Kuhns, J. Cousijn, and F. M. Filbey.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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