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(https://www.psypost.org/testosterone-heightens-neural-sensitivity-to-social-inclusion-and-exclusion-study-finds/) Testosterone heightens neural sensitivity to social inclusion and exclusion, study finds
Apr 28th 2025, 10:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110465) Neuropharmacology has found that testosterone can heighten the brain’s responsiveness to both positive and negative social experiences. In a carefully controlled experiment, healthy men who received testosterone showed amplified brain activity related to empathy for others’ inclusion and exclusion experiences, even though their self-reported feelings of empathy remained unchanged. These results suggest that testosterone may play a role in fine-tuning social vigilance by strengthening the brain’s sensitivity to emotionally significant cues.
Empathy is often described as the ability to understand and share the emotions of others, and it has been widely studied in the context of negative experiences like sadness or distress. However, researchers have paid less attention to how positive empathy—feeling joy for others’ successes—may be influenced by hormones such as testosterone. Most prior research has focused on whether testosterone impairs empathy, particularly for others’ suffering. Much less is known about how it might shape more complex forms of social responsiveness in both positive and negative emotional contexts.
The research team sought to bridge these gaps. They designed a study to test whether testosterone affects both positive and negative empathy when people observe social inclusion or exclusion events. They also aimed to understand whether testosterone could change brain activity at rest, setting the stage for different emotional reactions even before social interactions begin.
“My research initially focused on empathy, as it’s a fundamental part of how we connect and interact with others. Over time, I became curious about how biological factors—especially hormones like testosterone—might influence this process,” said study author Weiwei Peng, a professor at Shenzhen University and director of the (https://www.pcml.online/) Pain Cognition and Modulation Laboratory.
“While most studies have explored how testosterone affects empathy in negative situations, much less is known about its role in positive empathy, like sharing in someone’s happiness, which is key to social bonding. We designed this study to explore both emotional reactions and brain activity to get a fuller picture of how testosterone may shape empathy. These insights could ultimately help us better support people with conditions like autism or depression, where empathy is often affected.”
For their study, the researchers recruited 35 healthy young men, ultimately analyzing data from 34 participants after excluding one due to equipment issues. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, each participant completed two sessions spaced about a week apart. In one session, participants received a topical testosterone gel, and in the other, they received a placebo gel. The order of sessions was randomized, and neither participants nor researchers knew which gel was administered at the time.
Three hours after the gel application—timed to match the peak effects of testosterone—the participants first completed a resting-state brain recording using electroencephalography (EEG), a method that measures electrical activity in the brain. They then performed an empathy task, viewing images showing people either being socially included, excluded, or in neutral situations. After each image, participants rated how pleasant they thought the person in the image felt, as well as how pleasant they themselves felt while viewing it.
Although participants’ ratings of empathy did not change between testosterone and placebo sessions, their brain activity told a different story. When witnessing social exclusion, participants who had received testosterone showed a stronger early brain response, known as the N2 component, which is thought to reflect rapid emotional processing and threat detection. This suggests that testosterone made participants’ brains more sensitive to signs of social rejection.
When viewing scenes of social inclusion, testosterone altered brain activity in a different way. Participants exhibited a stronger suppression of brain waves in the alpha frequency range—a phenomenon known as alpha event-related desynchronization—over the back of the brain. This pattern is usually interpreted as a sign of increased engagement with emotionally significant or rewarding stimuli. In this case, it indicates that testosterone enhanced neural responsiveness to positive social experiences as well.
“Testosterone may tune the brain to better recognize both emotional pain and joy in others—even before we’re aware of it ourselves,” Peng told PsyPost. “Our study challenges the common view of testosterone as solely an ‘antisocial’ hormone. We found that it actually makes the brain more sensitive to both positive and negative social experiences, like feeling included or excluded. It didn’t change how empathic people said they felt, but it did make their brains react more strongly to emotional situations. That suggests testosterone could help us stay more tuned in to what others are feeling, which could have real value for people who struggle with social connection, such as those with autism or depression.”
Beyond these immediate reactions to social situations, testosterone also influenced the brain’s resting activity. Analysis of EEG recordings during rest revealed that testosterone prolonged the presence of a specific brain state known as microstate E. This brain pattern has been linked to emotional processing and awareness of internal bodily states. Importantly, participants who showed a larger testosterone-induced increase in microstate E also tended to show greater emotional empathy during the social tasks, even though they did not necessarily rate themselves as more empathetic.
These findings suggest that testosterone may increase a baseline sensitivity to emotional information, making the brain more responsive to both threats and rewards in social environments. Rather than simply dampening or boosting empathy in one direction, testosterone appears to fine-tune the brain’s social radar, enhancing the detection of both positive and negative social cues.
“One surprising finding from our study was how testosterone changed the brain’s resting activity—specifically in a brain state called microstate E, which is tied to internal bodily awareness and emotion processing,” Peng explained. “Testosterone made this brain state last longer, and that increase actually predicted greater emotional empathy in both positive and negative situations. It suggests testosterone may heighten our sensitivity to emotional signals by tuning how we internally process and monitor those feelings—even before we respond outwardly.”
The results align with theories proposing that testosterone is not purely a “dominance hormone” but rather a flexible regulator of social behavior. In environments where quick detection of social threats is important, testosterone might help individuals stay vigilant. In settings where cooperation and bonding are beneficial, it may enhance sensitivity to affiliative cues.
While the study offers important insights, it also has several limitations. The sample was relatively small and restricted to young adult males, limiting the ability to generalize the findings.
“Since testosterone is often labeled as a male hormone, our study focused on men, which means the results might not apply to women or older adults,” Peng noted. “Another limitation is that while we saw clear changes in brain activity, these didn’t always lead to noticeable changes in behavior. That suggests testosterone’s effects may be subtler or depend on the social context. Going forward, we hope to study more diverse groups and use more real-world social situations to understand the full picture.”
Future research could build on these results by studying a broader range of participants, exploring long-term effects of testosterone, or combining hormone administration with behavioral interventions aimed at improving social functioning. There is particular interest in whether these findings could eventually inform strategies to support individuals with empathy deficits, such as those seen in autism spectrum disorders or certain mood disorders.
“Testosterone is a fascinating topic, especially in the context of empathy,” Peng said. “We’re planning to explore how it interacts with other brain modulation techniques, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and whether it could contribute to future interventions. This is particularly relevant for clinical conditions like autism or depression, where empathy is often disrupted. Ultimately, our goal is to understand how testosterone influences the brain’s empathy systems so we can help develop new ways to support emotional and social functioning in people who need it most.”
“At our lab, we’re passionate about understanding how the brain processes pain and empathy. Personally, I’ve always been fascinated by how we recognize and respond to both our own and others’ emotional states. Our goal is to turn what we learn into real-world tools—interventions that help people better manage pain and build stronger empathic connections. By combining neuroimaging, cognitive neuroscience, and brain stimulation methods, we’re working to uncover how empathy and pain are wired in the brain—and how we can use that knowledge to improve people’s lives.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110465) The role of testosterone in modulating positive and negative empathy in social interactions,” was authored by Shiwei Zhuo, Yinhua Zhang, Chennan Lin, Wen Wu, and Weiwei Peng.

(https://www.psypost.org/distinct-brain-patterns-found-in-sleep-disorders-versus-sleep-deprivation/) Distinct brain patterns found in sleep disorders versus sleep deprivation
Apr 28th 2025, 08:00

New research published in (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2833305) JAMA Open Network sheds light on how the brain is affected by both chronic sleep disorders and temporary sleep deprivation. The study found that people with long-term sleep disorders show consistent changes in regions linked to emotion and reward processing, while people who experience short-term sleep loss show distinct changes in the brain’s relay center, the thalamus. These findings suggest that while both types of sleep problems are associated with brain alterations, they affect different neural systems.
Sleep disorders and insufficient sleep are extremely common across the world, yet their biological effects are not fully understood. Poor sleep is a known risk factor for a variety of mental health conditions and often appears alongside neuropsychiatric disorders. Recent advances in brain imaging have helped researchers begin to map how poor sleep affects brain function and structure, but many questions remain unanswered. In particular, it was unclear whether chronic sleep disorders and short-term sleep deprivation share similar brain abnormalities, or whether they affect different systems altogether.
“We were interested in this topic because sleep disturbances are incredibly common and have a profound impact on daily functioning and mental health. Despite the high prevalence and the shared daytime symptoms, comorbidities, and even genetic risk factors across different sleep disorders, research has often focused on these conditions in isolation,” said study author Gerion Reimann of Aachen University Hospital.
“Similarly, studies on experiment-induced sleep deprivation in healthy individuals are rarely linked back to chronic sleep disorders, even though the possibility of overlapping brain mechanisms remains an ongoing topic of discussion. Compounding this, many neuroimaging studies suffer from small sample sizes and methodological heterogeneity. We wanted to address these gaps by investigating whether chronic sleep disorders and short-term sleep loss share common or distinct neurobiological substrates – and to do so in a robust, large-scale meta-analytic framework.”
The researchers conducted a large-scale multimodal neuroimaging meta-analysis. They systematically reviewed neuroimaging studies from several databases, including work on a range of sleep disorders like insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and restless legs syndrome, as well as studies examining healthy individuals undergoing experimental sleep deprivation. In total, the analysis included data from 231 studies, encompassing 140 experiments and nearly 3,400 participants after accounting for overlapping samples. Only studies that used whole-brain structural or functional imaging and had significant findings comparing sleep-affected individuals to healthy controls were included.
The researchers used a method called activation likelihood estimation to find areas of the brain that consistently showed alterations across studies. Separate analyses were conducted for long-term sleep disorders and for short-term sleep deprivation. They also conducted contrast analyses to directly compare the two groups, as well as functional connectivity analyses to map how the affected brain regions interact with the rest of the brain.
The meta-analysis revealed that people with chronic sleep disorders consistently showed alterations in two brain regions: the bilateral subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) and the right amygdala and hippocampus. These regions are heavily involved in emotion regulation, reward processing, and memory. In contrast, people who experienced short-term sleep deprivation showed consistent changes in the right thalamus, a region involved in regulating attention, sensory processing, and alertness.
Behavioral decoding analyses suggested that abnormalities in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex were linked to reasoning, reward processing, and taste perception. Changes in the right amygdala and hippocampus were linked to negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, and sadness, as well as memory and respiratory interoception. The thalamus changes observed in sleep-deprived individuals were associated with thermoregulation, pain perception, and motor control.
Importantly, there was no evidence of overlapping abnormalities between long-term sleep disorders and short-term sleep deprivation. Functional connectivity analyses showed that the regions affected by sleep disorders were primarily connected with other areas involved in emotional regulation and self-referential thought, while the thalamic changes related to sleep deprivation connected to areas supporting attention, action planning, and sensory processing. This suggests that while both conditions impact brain function, they do so in different ways.
“Our study shows that chronic sleep disorders and short-term sleep deprivation affect different brain regions, suggesting distinct underlying mechanisms,” Reimann told PsyPost. “Chronic disorders consistently impact areas involved in emotion and memory – like the sgACC, amygdala, and hippocampus – helping to explain shared symptoms such as fatigue, mood changes, and memory issues. In contrast, short-term sleep loss is linked to the right thalamus, aligning with acute effects like impaired focus and physical discomfort.”
Complementary analyses provided additional support for these findings. The abnormalities in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and the right amygdala and hippocampus were seen across several types of sleep disorders, especially insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea. Meanwhile, changes in the thalamus were consistently observed across studies of both total and partial sleep deprivation. The findings related to the thalamus were particularly robust and remained stable even when accounting for potential publication bias.
“One of the most surprising aspects was the clear neurobiological separation between chronic sleep disorders and short-term sleep deprivation,” Reimann said. “Despite overlapping symptoms, the brain regions affected showed no anatomical overlap. This suggests that while the experiences may feel similar, the underlying mechanisms might be fundamentally different – an important insight for both diagnostics and treatment strategies.”
But the study, like all research, has limitations.
“While a meta-analysis is able to generate a robust result representing the convergent results across the literature, this comes with drawbacks or limitations, such as it cannot represent the entire neuroimaging literature, as there are exclusion criteria,” Reimann noted. “Some sleep disorders – like insomnia disorder and obstructive sleep apnea – were overrepresented, while others – like periodic limb movement disorder or congenital central hypoventilation syndrome – were underrepresented, which might affect how broadly the findings apply.”
“Additionally, the included studies are quite heterogenous, in sleep deprivation protocols, differences in whether participants were receiving treatment and how long they had been experiencing the disorder. Lastly, based on this analysis we cannot directly say in which way the regions are related to the disorders, whether it is the symptomatology or aetiology.”
The researchers emphasize that future studies should aim to examine how treatment for sleep disorders might influence the brain abnormalities identified here. It will also be important to investigate whether the observed brain changes are causes of sleep disturbance or consequences of it. In addition, better understanding the relationship between specific symptoms—such as fatigue, mood swings, or memory problems—and changes in brain regions like the amygdala and thalamus could help tailor new treatments.
“Our long-term goal is to better understand the neurobiological foundations of sleep disorders – both what different disorders have in common and how they differ from short-term sleep deprivation,” Reimann explained. “We aim to explore how specific brain regions and networks, such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and sgACC, relate to daytime dysfunction and whether these abnormalities reflect symptoms or underlying causes. This knowledge could pave the way for more targeted therapies, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), emotion-focused interventions, or neuromodulation techniques like transcranial magnetic stimulation (tMCS) that specifically address the affected brain regions.”
The study, “(https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2833305) Distinct Convergent Brain Alterations in Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation: A Meta-Analysis,” was authored by Gerion M. Reimann, Alireza Hoseini, Mihrican Koçak, Melissa Beste, Vincent Küppers, Ivana Rosenzweig, David Elmenhorst, Gabriel Natan Pires, Angela R. Laird, Peter T. Fox, Kai Spiegelhalder, Kathrin Reetz, Simon B. Eickhoff, Veronika I. Müller, and Masoud Tahmasian.

(https://www.psypost.org/long-term-obesity-patterns-linked-to-brain-aging-and-cognitive-decline/) Long-term obesity patterns linked to brain aging and cognitive decline
Apr 28th 2025, 06:00

A new study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s44220-025-00396-5) Nature Mental Health has found that different patterns of body weight over time are tied to distinct differences in brain structure, brain function, and cognitive abilities in adults. People whose obesity levels increased or stayed high over many years showed more brain abnormalities and lower cognitive performance, while those who lost weight or maintained low body fat levels had fewer signs of brain changes.
Although obesity has been connected to changes in the brain and cognition, most earlier research used only snapshots in time. Scientists were unsure whether the effects of obesity on the brain depend on how a person’s weight changes over the years. They also wanted to know if long-term patterns of obesity have different effects compared to short-term weight changes. To address these gaps, the team analyzed long-term health data and a wide range of body fat measurements, rather than relying only on body mass index, which cannot distinguish fat from muscle or show fat distribution.
“As we grow older, many of us start to wonder whether we can take control of our health to lead a better quality of life. The metabolic system plays a crucial role in overall health, including brain health. This sparked my interest in exploring how modifiable factors like obesity can influence brain function, and whether managing these factors proactively could help preserve cognitive health as we age,” explained study author Anqi Qui, a professor at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU).
The study drew on data from the UK Biobank, a large research project that has followed over 500,000 people in the United Kingdom since 2006. For this analysis, the researchers focused on 50,538 participants who had detailed obesity measurements taken at two or three different time points across an average of nine years. These measurements included body mass index, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, and fat percentages in different body regions. Brain scans and cognitive tests were also available for a subset of participants. After applying strict quality controls, about 24,000 participants were included in the brain imaging analysis and over 22,000 in the cognitive testing.
The team used advanced statistical techniques to identify five distinct patterns of obesity over time. About 25% of participants belonged to a “low-stable” group whose body fat stayed low across the years. Around 48% were in a “moderate-stable” group with stable but moderate obesity levels, while about 14% remained at high obesity levels (“high-stable”). Smaller groups either showed “increasing” obesity (about 8%) or “decreasing” obesity (about 6%).
When the researchers compared these groups, they found striking differences in brain structure. Participants who maintained low obesity levels showed the healthiest brain profiles. Those in the decreasing group, who lost weight over time, had minimal brain changes, with only small areas of thinning in the middle temporal and parahippocampal regions. In contrast, the increasing and stable obesity groups showed progressively greater thinning across the cortex, shrinkage in deep brain structures like the thalamus and putamen, and disruptions in brain network connectivity.
The most severe changes were seen in the high-stable group. These participants showed widespread thinning across almost the entire brain, reduced volumes in multiple subcortical areas, and disrupted communication across several brain networks, including those involved in movement, emotion regulation, and sensory processing. These patterns resembled brain changes typically associated with accelerated aging.
“I was surprised to find that a high level of obesity sustained over the long term may accelerate brain aging,” Qiu told PsyPost. “This highlights how chronic metabolic stress can have lasting impacts on brain health, beyond what we typically expect from physical health outcomes alone.”
Cognitive differences mirrored these brain findings. Compared to the low-stable group, individuals in the moderate-stable, increasing, and high-stable groups performed worse on tests of reasoning, working memory, and visuomotor speed. For example, people with consistently high obesity levels were slower at matching symbols to digits and performed worse on working memory tasks. Interestingly, some groups with higher obesity levels performed slightly better on visual memory tests, possibly reflecting different brain adaptations.
Mediation analyses suggested that changes in brain structure and function partially explained the links between obesity trajectories and cognitive performance. In particular, thinning of the cortex, reduced volumes in key brain regions like the thalamus and nucleus accumbens, and weakened network connections helped account for slower processing speeds and poorer memory in participants with higher or increasing obesity levels.
These findings provide evidence that “maintaining a healthy weight over the long term can have positive effects on brain health,” Qiu said. “Our findings suggest that managing body weight isn’t just important for physical health—it may also support better brain function as we age.”
The study had several strengths, including its large sample size, use of multiple body fat measurements, and comprehensive brain imaging and cognitive testing. However, there were also limitations. Most participants were middle-aged or older and of European descent, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to younger or more diverse populations. The study also relied on single brain imaging sessions rather than repeated scans over time, making it harder to track brain changes directly. In addition, only a few time points of obesity measurements were available, meaning that more complex patterns of weight change, such as repeated cycles of gain and loss, could not be fully captured.
“There are a few important limitations to consider,” Qiu said. “First, since the study is observational, we cannot draw conclusions about causality. Second, our findings are based on specific population cohorts, so further studies in more diverse groups are needed to confirm the generalizability of the results.”
Future research could expand these findings by examining more diverse populations, including younger adults, and by tracking both brain and body composition changes over longer periods. Studies could also explore whether interventions that promote weight loss or weight stability might help preserve brain health and cognitive function as people age.
“We aim to further investigate which specific regions of body fat have the greatest impact on brain health during aging,” Qiu explained. “Understanding these relationships in more detail could help identify targeted strategies to preserve cognitive function and promote healthy brain aging.”
The study, “(http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44220-025-00396-5) Long-term obesity impacts brain morphology, functional connectivity and cognition in adults,” was authored by Die Zhang, Chenye Shen, Nanguang Chen, Chaoqiang Liu, Jun Hu, Kui Kai Lau, Zhibo Wen, and Anqi Qiu.

(https://www.psypost.org/cannabis-use-linked-to-binge-eating-among-young-adult-women-new-research-finds/) Cannabis use linked to binge eating among young adult women, new research finds
Apr 27th 2025, 18:00

Young women who use cannabis may be more likely to engage in binge eating, according to a new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.12.015) Journal of Psychiatric Research. Researchers found that among emerging adults, cannabis use was associated with higher rates of binge eating in women but not in men, even after accounting for depressive symptoms.
Cannabis is one of the most commonly used psychoactive substances in the world, and its use has risen sharply, especially among young adults. In the United States, about one in three individuals aged 18 to 25 report using cannabis in the past year. At the same time, binge eating—characterized by consuming large quantities of food while feeling a loss of control—is a growing public health concern, often tied to emotional distress and mental health challenges. Prior studies have suggested that cannabis use and binge eating may be linked, but large-scale research focusing on young adults has been limited.
The researchers set out to investigate whether cannabis use was associated with binge eating behaviors among emerging adults, and whether this connection was influenced by depressive symptoms. They were particularly interested in examining whether these patterns differed between men and women, given previous evidence that women may be more sensitive to the effects of cannabis and are more likely to experience disordered eating.
The study used data from 1,568 emerging adults, with an average age of 22, who participated in the Eating and Activity over Time (EAT) 2010–2018 study. Participants completed surveys between 2017 and 2018 that assessed their cannabis use, binge eating behaviors, depressive symptoms, alcohol use, body mass index, and demographic characteristics such as age, race, and socioeconomic status. The researchers analyzed the data separately for men and women to identify potential gender differences.
Cannabis use was fairly common in the sample: 33% of men and 27% of women reported using cannabis at least once in the past year. When it came to binge eating, the researchers found striking differences between cannabis users and non-users among women. About 24% of female cannabis users reported binge eating in the past year, compared to only 13% of female non-users. Among men, binge eating rates were lower overall and did not differ significantly between cannabis users and non-users.
Even after adjusting for factors like depressive symptoms, body mass index, alcohol use, and demographics, the association between cannabis use and binge eating remained strong among women. In contrast, no significant relationship was found among men after these adjustments. This suggests that cannabis use may be linked to binge eating in women independent of depressive symptoms, highlighting a potential direct connection between the two behaviors.
The findings add to a growing body of research suggesting that the effects of cannabis use may differ between men and women. One possible explanation for the link is that cannabis can alter appetite and increase cravings for high-calorie foods. This phenomenon, often referred to as “the munchies,” is well documented. Cannabis use has been shown to heighten the sensory appeal of food, making eating more pleasurable and potentially encouraging overeating or binge eating behaviors. Women, who already face higher rates of disordered eating and greater societal pressures regarding body image, may be particularly vulnerable to these effects.
Psychological factors may also play a role. Both cannabis use and binge eating are sometimes used as coping mechanisms for managing negative emotions such as sadness, anxiety, or stress. Women with higher emotional sensitivity may be more likely to use cannabis or food to temporarily escape distressing feelings. However, while depressive symptoms were associated with both behaviors in this study, the link between cannabis use and binge eating in women persisted even after accounting for depression, suggesting that other mechanisms may be at play.
The study has some limitations. Because the data were collected at a single point in time, it is not possible to determine the direction of the relationship between cannabis use and binge eating. It is unclear whether cannabis use leads to binge eating, whether individuals who binge eat are more likely to use cannabis, or whether both behaviors share common underlying causes. Longitudinal studies that track changes over time would be necessary to untangle these possibilities.
Another limitation is that cannabis use was measured in a relatively broad way, without differentiating between frequency, quantity, or method of consumption. Future research could explore whether heavier or more frequent cannabis use carries a greater risk for binge eating. It would also be valuable to examine whether different types of cannabis products, such as those higher in tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) versus cannabidiol (CBD), have different impacts on eating behavior.
The researchers suggest that their findings could have important clinical implications. As cannabis legalization continues to expand, understanding how cannabis use may interact with mental health and eating behaviors is essential. Clinicians working with young women who use cannabis might want to assess for binge eating behaviors, and interventions targeting substance use or disordered eating could benefit from addressing both issues together.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.12.015) Cannabis use and binge eating among young adults: The role of depressive symptoms,” was authored by Roni Elran-Barak, Sharon Sznitman, Marla E. Eisenberg, Lydia Zhang, Melanie M. Wall, and Dianne Neumark-Sztainer.

(https://www.psypost.org/people-intuitively-associate-religiosity-with-goodness-and-atheism-with-wrongdoing/) People intuitively associate religiosity with goodness and atheism with wrongdoing
Apr 27th 2025, 16:00

Two experiments, one conducted in the United States and the other in New Zealand, found that people tend to have an intuitive moral bias linking religiosity with virtue and prosocial behavior. Similarly, they associated atheism with transgressive behavior. The research was published in Scientific Reports.
Moral bias refers to the tendency for moral values or judgments to influence reasoning, perception, or decision-making in a non-objective way. It can cause people to evaluate information, actions, or individuals more favorably or unfavorably based on whether they align with their own moral beliefs. This bias often leads to the selective acceptance of evidence that supports one’s values while dismissing or distorting conflicting information.
Moral bias plays a role in political, religious, and ethical debates, where facts are interpreted through a moral lens. It can also affect scientific reasoning, legal judgments, and policy decisions. For example, a person might reject valid research simply because its conclusions feel morally uncomfortable. Moral bias is often unconscious and can subtly shape how people frame problems or perceive fairness.
One frequently studied example of moral bias is the implicit belief that atheists are inherently immoral, while religious individuals are moral. A previous study found that moral bias against atheists is real and global in scope, but it remained unclear how personal religiosity influences the degree of this bias.
Study author Alex Dayer and his colleagues aimed to explore whether religious belief is intuitively linked with extreme prosociality. They also sought to replicate previous findings suggesting a connection between atheism and serious transgressive behavior. Additionally, they investigated whether individual differences in belief in God influenced conjunction fallacy rates when participants evaluated situations involving helping behavior. A conjunction fallacy occurs when people mistakenly believe that the probability of two events occurring together is higher than the probability of one of the events alone.
The researchers conducted two studies.
In the first study, participants were 744 workers recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk. Forty-four percent were female. Participants were paid $0.60 for their participation. They rated their belief in God and responded to two short vignettes. One vignette described a person who was a serial murderer, while the other described a person who was a serial helper, offering food and clothes to the homeless.
For each vignette, participants indicated which of two statements they found more probable: either that the person was a teacher or that the person was a teacher who believes in God (or does not believe in God). Participants were randomly assigned to conditions where the second option specified either belief or disbelief in God. Since teachers who do or do not believe in God are subsets of all teachers, the first option (“the individual is a teacher”) is always objectively more probable. This setup tested for the conjunction fallacy.
The second study used the same design but included 600 participants from New Zealand, recruited via Prolific. Fifty-two percent were female, and participants received $1 for their participation.
In the first study, results showed that when the serial helper was described as religious, 60% of participants selected that option. When the helper was described as an atheist, only 4% selected it. This suggests a strong moral bias linking religious people with prosocial behavior.
When the person in the vignette was a serial murderer, 64% of participants selected the conjunction option when it indicated he was an atheist, compared to only 18% when he was described as religious. This finding supports the idea that participants held an implicit moral bias against atheists. Religious participants showed higher conjunction fallacy rates when the conjunction option identified the person as an atheist.
The second study in New Zealand replicated the main findings, although the differences were smaller. For the serial helper, 49% selected the religious conjunction option, compared to 5% who selected the atheist option. For the serial murderer vignette, 45% chose the atheist conjunction option, while 27% chose the religious conjunction option.
“We found evidence that religionists are conceptualized as morally good to a greater extent than are atheists conceptualized as morally bad, with comparable patterns observed in a predominantly religious society, the United States, and in a predominantly secular society, New Zealand. Notwithstanding the aforementioned moderation of these effects by individual differences in religiosity, even relatively nonreligious participants evidenced these biases in both societies, suggesting that the conceptual associations are pervasive,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the moral bias about religiosity. However, while the studies were conducted in two different countries, both the U.S. and New Zealand are English-speaking countries sharing similar cultures and cultural routes. Studies in other cultures might not yield identical results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67960-4) Intuitive moral bias favors the religiously faithful,” was authored by Alex Dayer, Chanuwas Aswamenakul, Matthew A.Turner, Scott Nicolay, Emily Wang, Katherine Shurik, and Colin Holbrook.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-links-organic-food-consumption-to-better-cognitive-function-in-older-adults/) Study links organic food consumption to better cognitive function in older adults
Apr 27th 2025, 14:00

Older adults who eat more organic food tend to have better cognitive performance, according to a new study published in the (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-024-03555-z) European Journal of Nutrition. The researchers also found that organic food consumption was associated with a reduced risk of mild cognitive impairment among women, but not among men.
Mild cognitive impairment refers to a noticeable decline in memory and thinking skills that is greater than expected for a person’s age but does not interfere significantly with daily life. It is often viewed as a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia. Research shows that between 10 and 20 percent of individuals with mild cognitive impairment progress to dementia each year, and about half make this transition within five years. 
Since there are currently no effective treatments to reverse or stop this progression, strategies aimed at preventing cognitive decline have gained increasing attention. Lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and cognitive training have shown promise, but findings remain mixed.
Diet is believed to influence brain health in part through anti-inflammatory effects of certain nutrients and by promoting a healthier gut microbiome, which may communicate with the brain through what is known as the brain–gut axis. Organic foods, grown without most synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, have been suggested to contain higher levels of beneficial nutrients like polyphenols, magnesium, and essential fatty acids. However, few studies have directly examined whether organic food consumption influences cognitive health in aging adults.
In light of these gaps, researchers from Southern Medical University in China set out to examine the relationship between organic food intake and cognitive function. They used data from two large surveys: the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative study of older Americans, and its sub-study, the Health Care and Nutrition Study. Participants completed questionnaires about their food consumption and underwent cognitive assessments.
The researchers analyzed data from 6,077 adults for a cross-sectional analysis and 4,882 adults for a longitudinal analysis over a median follow-up of 3.7 years. Participants were considered organic food consumers if they reported eating any certified organic foods over the past year, based on United States Department of Agriculture standards. Organic foods were grouped into animal-based products, such as milk, eggs, and meat, and plant-based products, including fruits and vegetables. The researchers also calculated a dietary diversity score based on the number of different organic foods consumed.
Cognitive function was assessed using a telephone-based test that measured memory, attention, and processing speed. Higher scores indicated better cognitive abilities. Participants were also classified as having normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment, or dementia based on their test performance. The researchers controlled for a wide range of factors that could influence cognition, such as age, sex, race, education, wealth, physical activity, smoking, alcohol use, body mass index, depression, diabetes, hypertension, other chronic diseases, total energy intake, and overall diet quality.
Across the entire sample, older adults who consumed organic food had significantly higher cognitive scores than those who did not. This association was observed for both men and women. Consumption of both organic animal products and organic plant foods was independently linked to better cognitive function. Each additional type of organic food consumed was also associated with slightly better cognitive performance.
When examining changes over time, the researchers found that organic food consumption was associated with a lower risk of developing mild cognitive impairment — but only among women. Women who ate organic foods had about a 20 percent lower risk of mild cognitive impairment compared to women who did not, even after adjusting for multiple confounding factors. Eating organic animal products was associated with a 27 percent lower risk, while eating organic plant foods was associated with a 20 percent lower risk.
In contrast, no significant relationship between organic food consumption and mild cognitive impairment risk was found among men. Analyses suggested that organic meat, fruits, and vegetables were particularly important for reducing risk among women.
The researchers offered some potential explanations for the findings. Organic foods tend to have lower levels of potentially harmful substances, such as pesticide residues and heavy metals, and higher concentrations of protective nutrients like polyphenols, vitamins, and omega-3 fatty acids. These nutrients are believed to support cognitive health by reducing inflammation, promoting beneficial gut bacteria, and directly protecting brain cells from oxidative stress.
Despite the strengths of the study, including its large sample size and detailed adjustment for potential confounders, the researchers acknowledged several limitations. The measure of organic food consumption relied on self-report and did not capture the frequency or quantity of organic foods eaten. Occasional and regular organic food consumers were grouped together, which may have led to an overestimation or underestimation of the associations. Additionally, although the researchers adjusted for many factors, residual confounding cannot be ruled out, and the observational design means that no conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect.
The study’s authors noted that more research is needed, especially long-term randomized controlled trials that directly compare the effects of organic and conventional diets on cognitive outcomes. They also emphasized the importance of considering sex differences in future studies of diet and brain health.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-024-03555-z) Organic food consumption is positively associated with cognitive function among middle‑aged and older adults: cross‑sectional and longitudinal analyses,” was authored by Shiyu Li, Haowen Chen, Ruxun Zhao, Tingyu Wang, and Jufeng Ye.

(https://www.psypost.org/violent-offenders-more-likely-to-perceive-ambiguous-faces-as-angry-study-shows/) Violent offenders more likely to perceive ambiguous faces as angry, study shows
Apr 27th 2025, 12:00

A study conducted in Germany on male imprisoned violent offenders found no evidence that their fear processing is impaired. However, violent offenders, particularly those with pronounced aggression, were more likely to categorize certain highly ambiguous faces as angry compared to healthy controls. The research was published in (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/perception-of-emotional-facial-expressions-in-aggression-and-psychopathy/9B031AD0B060B7BDD374BB594AEF5FF0) Psychological Medicine.
Violent offenders are individuals who commit acts of physical aggression that cause or intend to cause harm to others, such as assault, homicide, or sexual violence. Psychologically, they tend to exhibit higher levels of impulsivity, making them more prone to act without considering consequences. Many struggle with emotional regulation, finding it difficult to manage anger, frustration, or fear. Some also display antisocial traits, including a lack of empathy, disregard for the rights of others, and manipulativeness.
Some violent offenders have histories of childhood trauma, abuse, or neglect, which can contribute to aggressive behavior later in life. Substance abuse is also common and can lower inhibitions or heighten aggression. While not all violent offenders have mental illnesses, certain disorders, such as borderline personality disorder or, in rare cases, schizophrenia, may increase the risk of violent behavior under specific conditions. Social and environmental factors—such as poverty, exposure to peer violence, or a lack of positive role models—often interact with psychological traits in the development of violent behavior.
Previous research has suggested that violent offenders may have impaired processing of fear, meaning it may be harder for them to experience fear themselves and to perceive it in others. To explore this possibility, study author Timo Stein and his colleagues conducted four experiments measuring how participants cognitively processed fearful and angry facial expressions, comparing their responses to neutral or other types of emotional expressions.
The study included 65 male imprisoned violent offenders and 60 age-matched control participants. The offenders, all convicted of violent crimes, were recruited from cooperating German correctional facilities. Among them, 21 individuals had sufficiently high scores on a psychopathy assessment to be classified as psychopathic.
Participants completed four cognitive tasks: two visual search tasks, one ambivalence task, and one morphing task. In the visual search tasks, participants were shown arrays of eight faces—seven identical distractors and one target face. In task one, the target differed by gender and emotional expression (happy, fearful, or neutral) or was tinted red. In task two, the design was the same except that red-tinted faces were excluded.
The ambivalence task used morphs blending angry, happy, and fearful expressions at different intensities. Participants had to identify the predominant emotion by pressing the corresponding button. In the morphing task, participants viewed a gradual transition from a neutral expression to a full emotional expression (happy, angry, fearful, or sad) and pressed a button as soon as they recognized any emotional change.
Analysis of participants’ responses across tasks found no evidence that violent offenders cognitively processed fear differently than healthy individuals. Similarly, individuals with high levels of aggression or psychopathy did not show a specific bias toward perceiving angry faces more readily.
However, in the ambivalence task, which required participants to explicitly identify the perceived emotion in highly ambiguous faces (those blending 50% happy and 50% angry expressions), violent offenders were significantly more likely than controls to categorize them as angry. This tendency was particularly pronounced in violent offenders who scored higher on measures of aggression.
However, in the ambivalence task, the task that required participants to explicitly identify the emotion they perceive, and when viewing highly ambiguous pictures (50% happy, 50% angry), violent offenders were more likely than controls to categorize them as angry. This was more pronounced in violent offenders with higher aggression levels.
“In conclusion, across four experiments we found no evidence for perceptual deficits for emotion (including fear) in psychopathy, but a cognitive bias for anger linked to aggression. These results challenge the view that psychopathy arises from altered emotion processing and support the idea that a hostile attribution bias may underlie aggressive behavior,” the  study authors concluded.
The study contributes to the scientific knowledge about visual perception and processing specificities of violent offenders. However, it should be noted that the study was conducted on a very small group of violent offenders who were all male. Results on female offenders might differ.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724001417) Perception of emotional facial expressions in aggression and psychopathy,” was authored by Timo Stein, Nina Gehrer, Aiste Jusyte, Jonathan Scheeff, and Michael Schönenberg.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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