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(https://www.psypost.org/common-medications-linked-to-subtle-shifts-in-cognitive-performance-study-finds/) Common medications linked to subtle shifts in cognitive performance, study finds
Apr 24th 2025, 08:00

A large-scale study published in (https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.70200) Brain and Behavior has found that some widely used medications may have subtle but meaningful associations with cognitive performance—both positive and negative—when considered across entire populations. By analyzing data from more than half a million individuals in the United Kingdom and validating the findings in two additional cohorts, researchers developed a “cognitive footprint” framework to estimate how different medications might influence mental performance on a broad scale.
The study was designed in response to growing awareness that many medications can affect thinking and memory, even if cognitive function is not the drug’s intended target. Although these effects are often small, the widespread use of certain medications means that even slight impairments or improvements could add up to significant effects at the societal level. This has implications not only for public health but also for how drug trials and prescriptions are evaluated.
“We have been exploring the concept of a cognitive footprint of individual-level and societal-level events and interventions. This is similar to the concept of a carbon footprint, which can be positive or negative and has a cumulative effect over time,” said study author Martin Rossor, a professor at the UCL Institute of Neurology.
“Drug side effects are very common—particularly cognitive ones—but often not sufficiently recognized, especially for medications that do not specifically target the central nervous system. Even small effects may have significant societal impact if a medication is taken for a long time or by many people. So this was an opportunity to look at the positive and negative cognitive footprints of medications.”
To explore this, the researchers drew on three long-running population studies: the UK Biobank, which includes over 500,000 participants aged 37 to 73; the EPIC Norfolk study, with over 8,000 participants who completed cognitive testing; and the Caerphilly Prospective Study, a smaller cohort of nearly 3,000 older men. Each of these studies collected detailed data on participants’ medication use, health history, and cognitive performance. However, the cognitive tests used differed across studies, requiring sophisticated statistical methods to align the results.
In the UK Biobank, researchers used a statistical approach called principal component analysis to create a summary measure of overall cognitive ability from various individual tests, including reaction time, fluid intelligence, and memory tasks. They then applied Bayesian regression models to estimate the relationship between regular use of different medications and cognitive performance, accounting for a wide range of other factors such as age, income, physical health, mood, and education.
They found that many medications had measurable associations with cognition, although the size of these effects was generally small. Among those most negatively associated were medications targeting the central nervous system, including some antiepileptics and antidepressants. For example, valproic acid, a commonly prescribed drug for seizure disorders, had one of the largest negative associations with cognitive speed. Amitriptyline, a tricyclic antidepressant, was also linked to reduced performance across several cognitive measures.
“Cognitive side effects of medications are frequent and often overlooked,” Rossor told PsyPost. “Interventional trials and post-market surveillance should include structured assessments of cognition routinely, whether or not the intervention is plausibly neurotropic.”
On the other hand, some medications showed positive associations. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, were linked to better scores on various cognitive tasks. Glucosamine, a supplement often used for joint pain, consistently showed small positive associations across all outcomes. Omega-3 fatty acids, known for their potential brain benefits, were also positively associated with several cognitive measures, particularly in the EPIC Norfolk and Caerphilly cohorts.
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, emerged as a drug of particular interest. It was one of the most frequently used medications and consistently showed small but negative associations with cognitive performance across the three cohorts. Because of its widespread use, this resulted in a relatively large “negative cognitive footprint” when scaled up to the population level. This means that, even though the individual impact may be minor, the overall effect across millions of users could be meaningful.
“While we anticipated negative effects, we were surprised that glucosamine and ibuprofen had a significant positive cognitive footprint,” Rossor said. “It’s also noteworthy that paracetamol and ibuprofen, which are often taken for similar purposes, had among the worst and best cognitive footprints observed in the study, respectively, across several cognitive domains.”
To estimate the broader implications, the researchers extrapolated their findings to the general UK population aged 40 to 70. They used standardized effect sizes (Z-scores) to compare the cognitive impact of medications with other known factors, such as air pollution and aging. For instance, the positive footprint of ibuprofen on overall cognitive ability was roughly equivalent to reducing the average age of the population by two months or lowering nitrogen dioxide pollution by one microgram per cubic meter.
The cognitive effects were most consistent for measures of processing speed and attention, suggesting that these functions may be especially sensitive to drug-related changes. However, not all cognitive domains were equally affected, and the impact of some medications varied across different studies. For example, glucosamine showed a positive effect in the UK Biobank and EPIC Norfolk cohorts but not in the older Caerphilly sample, where it was used less frequently.
The study’s authors caution that their findings are observational and do not prove that medications directly cause changes in cognitive performance. Despite using advanced statistical models to control for a wide range of potential confounding factors, such as pain or general health, it is still possible that unmeasured variables or reverse causation played a role. People who take certain medications may differ in important ways from those who do not, and some participants may have had early signs of cognitive decline before starting medication.
“The major caveat is that association does not prove causation,” Rossor noted. “The cross-sectional nature of the study—since there was not enough data for exploring longitudinal effects—means that the relationship between medication and cognition may be difficult to interpret.”
“While we tried to isolate the effects of medication by modeling as many other factors as possible—for example, the effects of pain on cognition in individuals taking paracetamol—these influences can never be entirely ruled out. We can only provide an upper bound of the potential effect at the population level of a medication’s cognitive footprint.”
The study introduces a useful new tool—the cognitive footprint—for evaluating the broader effects of medications on mental performance. By incorporating both effect size and population prevalence, this approach highlights the importance of considering cognition in drug development, prescribing practices, and public health policy. It also underscores the need for more comprehensive research on the unintended cognitive effects of medications, including over-the-counter drugs and supplements that are widely used but rarely studied in this context.
Future research may benefit from applying the cognitive footprint concept to other areas, such as the impact of environmental exposures or lifestyle interventions on mental functioning. “We would like to explore the cognitive footprint of a variety of interventions and effects—such as, at an individual level, the footprint of shift work, and at a population level, the effect of heat waves,” Rossor explained.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.70200) The Cognitive Footprint of Medication Use,” was authored by Marta Suárez Pinilla, Charlotte R. Stoner, Martin Knapp, Parashkev Nachev, and Martin Rossor.

(https://www.psypost.org/psychology-surprisingly-simple-trick-can-aid-speech-comprehension-in-noisy-settings/) This surprisingly simple trick can aid speech comprehension in noisy settings
Apr 24th 2025, 06:00

Moving to a steady beat before listening can enhance how well people understand speech in noisy settings, according to new research published in (https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2025.0354) Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The study found that rhythmic finger tapping or speaking a word aloud—especially at a rate that mirrors natural speech rhythms—significantly improved participants’ ability to identify words embedded in background noise. These findings point to a surprisingly active role of the motor system in helping the brain process spoken language.
Understanding speech in noisy environments is a demanding task. Past research has shown that we rely not only on the sounds themselves but also on their timing—when things are said, not just what is said. The motor system, known for controlling movement, also plays a role in how we perceive time and rhythm. This study was designed to investigate whether moving in rhythm before hearing speech could prime the brain for better listening. Specifically, the researchers wanted to know whether rhythmic movement improves speech comprehension, whether the type or timing of movement matters, and whether speaking aloud can have similar benefits.
“This research stems from the idea that we are first and foremost beings of action, and that perception only comes later, as feedback to guide our actions. Perception is therefore ‘active,’ fundamentally dependent on and coupled with movement,” said study author (https://ins-amu.fr/benjaminmorillon) Benjamin Morillon, research director at Inserm at Aix-Marseille University.
The researchers conducted a series of three related experiments. In the first, 35 French-speaking participants listened to sentences masked with background noise. Before each sentence, participants either remained still or tapped their finger in rhythm with a beat presented at one of three speeds: phrasal (about 1.1 beats per second), lexical (about 1.8 beats per second), or syllabic (about 5 beats per second). After hearing each sentence, participants had to choose the correct word from a list of four options.
The researchers measured both how accurate and how quick the participants were. They found that tapping at the lexical rate (around 1.8 Hz) led to significantly better word recognition compared to tapping at the slower phrasal rate. This improvement was not observed for the syllabic rate or in the passive condition. The findings suggest that moving at a rhythm aligned with the natural pace of word delivery helps the brain prepare to understand speech.
In the second experiment, the researchers explored whether the benefits of rhythm came from movement alone, sound alone, or a combination of both. Forty-one participants completed a similar task online. This time, before each sentence, participants experienced one of four conditions: remaining passive, listening to a rhythmic beat, tapping freely at their own rhythm, or tapping in time with a beat.
The analysis showed that both listening to a beat and tapping rhythmically helped participants perform better than doing nothing. However, tapping—whether on its own or in sync with a beat—was especially effective. Participants who tapped rhythmically showed improved accuracy and responded more quickly than those who only listened to a beat. These results support the idea that engaging the motor system through movement, even when not directly related to speech, enhances listening performance in noisy settings.
In the third experiment, the researchers asked whether a more natural form of motor activity—speaking—could also improve listening. Thirty-eight participants were shown a verb before each sentence and were asked to either say it out loud or read it silently. The verb was either semantically related or unrelated to a target noun in the upcoming sentence. For example, participants might say “kick” before hearing a sentence that included the word “heels.”
The researchers found that saying the verb aloud improved listening performance, regardless of whether the word was semantically related to the target. This suggests that the benefit came from the act of speaking itself, rather than from any specific meaning. Simply engaging the motor system through speech appeared to prime the brain to process incoming spoken information more efficiently.
Morillon found the findings from the final experiment particularly surprising, as they indicate “that speaking helps to prepare for listening, and therefore to hear better.”
Together, the three experiments provide evidence that the motor system is not just for movement—it helps the brain anticipate when important information will occur in speech. This motor-based timing may provide a kind of internal clock that prepares the auditory system for incoming sounds. The benefits were especially strong when the rhythm matched the natural pace of word delivery—around 1.5 to 2 times per second.
“The main takeaway is that moving can help you hear better in noisy environments,” Morillon told PsyPost. “Just as we tap our feet when we play or listen to music, to keep up with the tempo, moving could help us follow the rhythm of speech.”
The findings also suggest that rhythmic movement doesn’t have to be tied to the speech itself to be helpful. Generic rhythms, whether from tapping or speaking, appear to help the brain tune in to speech, even when the timing is not specifically aligned with the structure of a sentence. This supports the broader idea that our brains recycle motor circuits, originally developed for physical movement, to help process time-based sensory information like music and speech.
But there are some limitations. Because all sentences were presented in noise, it’s not yet clear whether the improvements reflect a general boost to speech understanding or simply a better ability to focus on speech in challenging conditions. The study also did not examine whether participants’ musical training or rhythmic ability influenced the results, although such factors could play a role.
“The effects are significant but small,” Morillon noted. “It remains to be seen whether it’s possible to achieve greater performance gains. What’s more, in the experiments, we don’t tap or talk during listening, but beforehand, to prepare. This is different from music, where you tap while listening, which has a stronger impact.”
Future research could explore whether people with strong rhythmic skills benefit more from motor priming and whether these effects hold across different languages and age groups. Neuroimaging studies could also help uncover the brain networks involved in linking motor activity to auditory processing.
Morillon hopes to “understand if and how we process the temporal information of the speech signal, if we anticipate ‘when’ a piece of information is going to be delivered, in addition to anticipating ‘what’ is going to be said, and how these anticipation mechanisms interact.”
“How do we perceive time?” he added. “We recycle the motor system, which is a very precise clock for coordinating movements—such as antagonistic muscles—for estimating durations. Perceiving time (on the order of seconds) would then be a simulation of movements, an imagined dance.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2025.0354) Moving rhythmically can facilitate naturalistic speech perception in a noisy environment,” was authored by Noémie te Rietmolen, Kristof Strijkers, and Benjamin Morillon.

(https://www.psypost.org/why-people-with-autism-struggle-to-get-hired/) Why people with autism struggle to get hired
Apr 23rd 2025, 20:00

First impressions matter − they shape (https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.2.256) how we’re judged in mere seconds, research shows. People are quick to evaluate others’ competence, likability and honesty, often relying on (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.018) superficial cues such as appearance or handshake strength. While these snap judgments can be flawed, they often have a (https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000232) lasting impact. In employment, first impressions not only affect (https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019918) hiring choices but also (https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2020.3703) decisions about promotion years later.
(https://charleston.edu/psychology/faculty/may-cindi.php) As a researcher in cognitive science, I’ve seen firsthand how first impressions can pose a challenge for individuals with autism spectrum disorder, or ASD. People with ASD often display social behaviors − such as (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2194-7) facial expressions, (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.09.022) eye contact, (https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.159) gestures and (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103369) sense of personal space − that can differ from those of (https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-does-neurotypical-mean) neurotypical individuals.
These differences are often misunderstood, leading people with ASD to be (https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361318788071) perceived as awkward, odd or (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04963-4) even deceptive. People form these negative impressions in just seconds and report being reluctant to (https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40700) talk to, hang out with or even live near people on the spectrum.
It’s not surprising, then, that unfavorable first impressions create barriers for people with ASD in the workplace.
The interview trap
It starts with the job interview. Whether you’re seeking a position as a computer programmer at a tech firm or a dog groomer at a vet clinic, the job interview is a critical gateway. Success depends on your ability to think on your feet, communicate your qualifications and present yourself as (https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412463213) likable, agreeable and collegial.
My research demonstrates that job seekers with ASD often perform poorly in interviews due to the social demands of the situation. This is true even when the candidate is highly qualified for the job they are seeking.
In (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05432-2) one study, my colleagues and I videotaped mock job interviews with 30 young adults − half with ASD, half neurotypical − who were all college students without an intellectual disability. We asked them to discuss their dream jobs and qualifications for five minutes. Afterward, evaluators rated them on social traits, such as likability, enthusiasm and competence, and indicated how likely they were to hire each interviewee. As in most professional interviews, the evaluators weren’t aware that some candidates were on the autism spectrum.
Candidates with autism spectrum disorder were consistently rated less favorably on all social dimensions compared with people without the condition, and those unfavorable social ratings weighed heavily on hiring decisions. Even though candidates with ASD were rated as equally qualified as neurotypical candidates, they were significantly less likely to be hired.
Interestingly, when evaluators only read the candidates’ interview transcripts without watching the interviews, ratings for ASD candidates were the same as, or even better than, those for neurotypical candidates. This suggests that it’s not just what candidates say in an interview but how they present themselves socially that affects hiring decisions.
This is especially problematic for jobs that require minimal social interaction − think data analyst or landscaper − where a candidate’s qualifications should be the main consideration. By relying on interviews as a primary screening tool, employers may miss out on competent, qualified applicants with unique strengths.
Rethinking what makes a good candidate
(https://doi.org/10.1080/10400435.2023.2188907) Scientists have explored whether it’s possible to teach adults with ASD how to improve their interview skills, for example by maintaining more eye contact or standing at a socially acceptable distance from an interviewer.
While such training (https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319827134) can help, it addresses only a small part of the problem, and I think this approach may not significantly improve employment outcomes for autistic adults.
For one, it reduces the challenges faced by adults with ASD to a limited set of behaviors. ASD is a complex condition, and research shows that the negative evaluations of individuals with ASD are not driven by a single difference or a collection of specific differences, but rather by the (https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40700) individual’s overall presentation.
In addition, this type of training often encourages individuals to mask their autistic traits, which could make a stressful interview (https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0071) even more difficult. Finally, if ASD candidates successfully mask their autism during the interview but (https://www.verywellmind.com/neurodivergence-at-work-to-mask-or-not-to-mask-7108000) can’t maintain that mask once they are hired, their longevity in the position could be at risk.
A more effective approach may be to change how interviews are conducted and how candidates are perceived. This includes giving employers meaningful education about autism and giving job applicants a way to disclose their diagnosis without penalty. Research shows that when (https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317729526) people know more about autism spectrum disorder, they have more positive views of people with ASD. In addition, ratings of people with ASD are often (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04963-4) more favorable when evaluators know about their diagnosis. (https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/xap0000282) Combining these two approaches − that is, pairing ASD education for employers with diagnostic disclosure for candidates − may lead to better outcomes.
My colleagues and I explored this possibility in (https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000282) a series of studies. Again, we showed raters the mock job interviews of candidates with and without ASD. This time, however, some evaluators watched a brief educational video about autism, learning about characteristics and strengths often associated with ASD before evaluating the mock interviews. In addition, these raters knew which candidates had an ASD diagnosis.
Even though raters still perceived the candidates with ASD as more awkward and less likable, they rated those candidates as equally qualified as neurotypical candidates and were just as likely to hire them. This (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-025-06751-w) boost in hiring ratings persisted even when the educational video about autism was viewed months before candidates were evaluated.
Notably, neither of these interventions was effective on its own. In different conditions, some evaluators simply got the training but didn’t receive diagnostic information about candidates; others received no education about autism but were aware of which candidates had ASD. Both groups continued to select against candidates with ASD in hiring decisions, even though the candidates with ASD were rated as highly qualified. It appears that both knowing a person has autism and understanding more about autism are important for overcoming negative first impressions.
We believe that our training fostered a greater understanding of the atypical interactive style and behaviors that can be common among adults with ASD. This understanding, when coupled with the knowledge of a candidate’s diagnosis, may have helped evaluators contextualize those behaviors and, in turn, place more emphasis on qualifications when making hiring decisions.
When hiring decisions are based on merit, both employees and employers benefit. First impressions, though impactful, can be deceptive and often bias decisions, particularly for individuals with ASD. Our findings highlight an important truth: Understanding autism enables employers to focus on qualifications, giving candidates with ASD a fair opportunity to succeed based on their true potential.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/why-people-with-autism-struggle-to-get-hired-and-how-businesses-can-help-by-changing-how-they-look-at-job-interviews-254658) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-anxious-pet-attachments-may-contribute-to-psychological-distress/) New study: Anxious pet attachments may contribute to psychological distress
Apr 23rd 2025, 18:00

For many people, pets provide unconditional love, companionship and a sense of security. But not all human-pet relationships are beneficial, and some may (https://theconversation.com/pets-give-companionship-cuddles-and-joy-and-also-unavoidable-stresses-227112) contribute to stress and anxiety rather than relief.
Psychologists have been studying (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000692) attachment theory for decades. This framework explains how people form emotional bonds, seek closeness and manage separation. People with secure attachment tend to feel safe in relationships, while those with (https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000437) attachment anxiety may crave closeness but frequently worry about rejection or loss.
Just like with human relationships, people form (https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2017.1311050) attachment bonds with pets. Some form secure attachments, finding comfort in their pet and viewing them as a reliable source of companionship. Others experience anxious attachment, feeling excessive worry, distress and a heightened need for reassurance when separated from their pet.
In our recently published research, my (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eXIhdAUAAAAJ&hl=en) research team and I found that attachment anxiety is strongly linked to depression symptoms among owners. This suggests that well-being isn’t just about having a pet, but about the (https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2025.0005) quality of your bond.
Strong bonds aren’t always healthy bonds
My team and I set out to explore whether the way people bond with their pets has a measurable effect on their mental well-being.
We surveyed over 1,000 pet owners in the U.S. about their closeness to their pets; how often they engaged in activities like playing, cuddling or spending time together; and whether they felt secure or anxious in the relationship. We also measured symptoms of depression to examine how different characteristics of pet bonds might influence mental well-being.
Our results revealed a clear pattern: Higher pet attachment anxiety was the strongest predictor of depression symptoms. In other words, people who felt overly dependent on their pets, constantly (https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2024.0040) worrying about being apart from them or whether their pet “loved” them back, were more likely to experience depression symptoms.
Surprisingly, simply feeling emotionally close to a pet was not enough to predict better mental health. While some may assume that a stronger bond with a pet automatically leads to greater well-being, our findings suggest that the quality of the attachment matters more than its intensity. People with secure pet relationships reported better well-being, while those with higher attachment anxiety experienced greater distress.
We also found that while frequent pet interactions were linked to stronger and more secure human-pet bonds, interaction frequency did not significantly predict mental health outcomes. This reinforces the idea that (https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2024.0040) emotional security in the relationship, rather than just the frequency of interaction, is what truly matters for mental health.
Interestingly, people who owned both a cat and a dog reported more depression symptoms than those with only one type of pet. While our study did not determine the cause, one possibility is that managing multiple pets can add stress or increase the burden of caregiving.
How pet relationships shape your mental health
Our findings highlight that pet ownership is not a one-size-fits-all solution for mental health. The way people bond with their pets – whether they feel (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.04.001) emotionally secure or experience anxiety in the relationship – may be just as important as pet ownership itself in shaping well-being.
This research also raises important questions about the role of emotional support animals and (https://petpartners.org/a-beginners-guide-to-animal-assisted-intervention-terminology/) animal-assisted interventions. If pet ownership is going to be integrated into mental health care, it may not be enough to simply encourage pet companionship. Instead, the quality of the human-animal bond could be a key factor in whether pets provide comfort or contribute to emotional distress.
This study does not suggest that people should stop seeking emotional support from pets. Instead, it highlights how the way people bond with their pets can (https://theconversation.com/could-sharing-a-bedroom-with-your-pets-be-keeping-you-from-getting-a-good-nights-sleep-226216) influence well-being in ways they may not always realize.
For those who rely on their pets for emotional support, recognizing these patterns may help foster a bond that feels reassuring rather than stressful. Pets can provide deep comfort, but (https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101882) caregiving comes with challenges, too. Reflecting on both the joys and responsibilities of pet ownership can help strengthen the human-animal bond, supporting the well-being of both pets and owners.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/just-having-a-pet-doesnt-help-mental-health-but-pet-owners-with-secure-relationships-with-their-pets-are-less-depressed-250482) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-research-shows-link-between-weight-loss-strategies-and-depression-risk/) New research shows link between weight loss strategies and depression risk
Apr 23rd 2025, 16:00

A new study suggests that the way people attempt to lose weight might have a meaningful impact on their mental health. The research, published in the (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016503272500549X) Journal of Affective Disorders, showed that healthy weight loss behaviors such as eating more fruits and vegetables, switching to lower-calorie foods, and exercising were associated with fewer symptoms of depression. In contrast, unhealthy approaches—including skipping meals, taking diet pills, or vomiting—were linked to a higher likelihood of depressive symptoms.
The researchers conducted this study to better understand how weight loss efforts relate to psychological well-being. As weight loss behaviors become more widespread, concerns have grown about the mental health consequences of certain practices. While strategies like improving diet and increasing physical activity are often encouraged, many people turn to more extreme methods that could be emotionally harmful. The team sought to evaluate how various strategies impact depressive symptoms, especially given the growing popularity of weight loss efforts in both clinical and non-clinical settings.
“The growing concern over the global obesity epidemic and its associated health risks, including mental health implications, motivated me to explore the potential link between weight loss methods and depression. Given the increasing prevalence of both obesity and depression, understanding how different weight loss methods affect mental well-being is crucial for public health,” explained study author (https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?hl=zh-CN&user=C6tiDKkAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate) Zheng Zhang, a PhD candidate at South China Normal University.
To investigate, the researchers used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a large, ongoing study of health trends in the United States. They analyzed responses from 9,334 non-pregnant adults aged 20 to 79 who had attempted to lose weight in the past year. About 61% of the participants were women, and the average age was 47. Participants were asked to report on their weight loss behaviors and completed a standardized questionnaire assessing depressive symptoms over the previous two weeks.
Weight loss strategies were divided into two categories. Protective methods included exercising, switching to lower-calorie foods, and increasing fruit and vegetable intake. Harmful methods included skipping meals, using liquid diet formulas, taking prescription or over-the-counter diet pills, and inducing vomiting or using laxatives. The researchers used statistical models to assess how these behaviors were associated with depressive symptoms while accounting for other factors like age, income, education, smoking status, and body mass index.
The researchers found that people who reported using protective strategies were significantly less likely to experience depressive symptoms. Exercise, for example, was associated with a 39% reduction in the likelihood of depression, while eating more fruits and vegetables was linked to a 22% reduction. On the other hand, participants who engaged in harmful strategies had a substantially higher risk of depressive symptoms. Skipping meals was linked to a 71% increase in depression risk, and those who reported vomiting or using laxatives had more than twice the odds of experiencing depression.
The number of strategies used also mattered. People who used more protective strategies tended to report fewer symptoms of depression, while those who used multiple harmful strategies were at a significantly greater risk. Those who employed three or more harmful methods had nearly triple the odds of reporting depressive symptoms compared to those who used none.
“One finding that stood out was the significant difference in depression risk between individuals who lost weight through diet and exercise compared to those who used surgical or pharmaceutical methods,” Zhang told PsyPost. “This suggests that the long-term psychological benefits of more sustainable weight loss methods, like lifestyle changes, might be more favorable.”
The researchers also explored how these effects varied by demographic factors. Protective strategies were especially beneficial for individuals who were already at higher risk of depression, such as women, people with lower education levels, and those living in poverty. Harmful strategies, by contrast, were particularly linked to increased depressive symptoms among younger people, men, and those without chronic health conditions. These findings suggest that both vulnerable and advantaged groups may need tailored guidance when it comes to weight loss and mental health.
Importantly, the emotional effects of weight loss behaviors appeared to be more pronounced in individuals who failed to lose weight. For example, people who used extreme strategies but did not successfully reduce their body weight reported higher levels of depressive symptoms, suggesting that the combination of unsuccessful outcomes and harmful methods may contribute to emotional distress.
“Our study highlights that weight loss methods, especially those that focus on lifestyle changes such as diet and physical activity, can have varying impacts on mental health,” Zhang explained. “It’s essential for individuals to approach weight loss with a holistic mindset, considering not only the physical but also the psychological aspects of these methods.”
While the study highlights key patterns, it does have limitations. Because the data are cross-sectional, the researchers cannot determine whether the weight loss behaviors caused changes in depressive symptoms or if people with more symptoms were more likely to choose certain strategies. In addition, all information was self-reported, which can introduce biases related to memory or social desirability.
“The cross-sectional nature of the NHANES data prevents us from drawing causal conclusions, and we acknowledge that other factors such as socioeconomic status and pre-existing mental health conditions could influence our findings,” Zhang noted.
“In the future, I aim to explore more deeply how different weight loss interventions impact mental health in diverse populations. This could help inform personalized treatment plans and public health recommendations to support both physical and psychological well-being.”
“I believe that our research underscores the need for a more integrated approach to weight loss and mental health,” Zhang added. “It’s essential to not only focus on achieving weight loss goals but also to prioritize mental health outcomes when choosing weight loss methods.”
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016503272500549X) Weight loss methods and risk of depression: Evidence from the NHANES 2005-2018 cohort,” was authored by Huijie Xu, Zheng Zhang, and Yuanyuan Wang.

(https://www.psypost.org/instrumental-music-training-linked-to-better-cognitive-performance-in-adults-with-adhd-study-finds/) Instrumental music training linked to better cognitive performance in adults with ADHD, study finds
Apr 23rd 2025, 14:00

Young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder who play an instrument may outperform their non-musical peers on a range of cognitive tasks, according to new research published in (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00426-024-02048-2) Psychological Research. The study found that adults with ADHD who had received long-term training in piano or guitar showed stronger performance on measures of attention, memory, processing speed, and executive functioning. These results suggest that learning and practicing an instrument could support cognitive skills that are typically challenging for individuals with ADHD.
ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental condition marked by difficulties with attention, hyperactivity, and impulse control. It often persists into adulthood, where it can affect academic achievement, occupational functioning, and relationships. Although many treatment strategies focus on medication and behavioral therapy, there is growing interest in non-traditional interventions that might strengthen the underlying cognitive processes affected by the disorder.
Music, with its known benefits for brain plasticity, memory, and emotional regulation, has emerged as a promising candidate. While past studies have shown that music training can enhance brain development in children and support cognitive health in older adults, research specifically focused on individuals with ADHD remains limited—especially among adults. This new study sought to close that gap by examining whether musical training is associated with cognitive improvements in young adults diagnosed with ADHD.
The author of the study, Sivan Raz, recruited 94 participants between the ages of 18 and 35, all of whom had a formal diagnosis of ADHD. The sample included two groups: 48 musicians who had played either piano or guitar for at least five years, and 46 non-musicians with no formal training. Both groups were carefully matched on age, sex, education level, and socioeconomic background. Importantly, none of the participants were taking ADHD medication during the study period.
To assess cognitive performance, participants completed a battery of standardized tests. These included the Digit-Symbol Coding and Symbol Search tests to evaluate processing speed and attention, the Digit Span test to assess memory and auditory recall, and a task-switching test to measure cognitive flexibility and executive control. They also completed a Continuous Performance Test designed to gauge sustained attention and impulse control.
Across nearly every measure, the musicians outperformed the non-musicians. On the Digit-Symbol Coding and Symbol Search tests, musicians scored significantly higher, suggesting faster information processing and better visual attention. They also had stronger performance on the Digit Span test, both in the forward and backward conditions, indicating enhanced working memory and auditory recall. These results align with earlier studies linking music training to improvements in memory systems and processing efficiency.
The switching task revealed additional advantages for the musician group. Although musicians responded more slowly than non-musicians on more difficult “switch” trials, they made fewer errors and showed greater consistency in their reaction times. This pattern suggests they were more deliberate and less impulsive in their responses—an encouraging sign, given that impulsivity is a core difficulty in ADHD. In this case, slower responses reflected a more thoughtful, controlled approach rather than a deficit.
The Continuous Performance Test supported these findings. Musicians committed significantly fewer commission errors, which occur when participants respond when they should withhold action. Because commission errors reflect poor impulse control, the reduced error rate in the musician group suggests enhanced inhibitory functioning. In contrast, the differences in other measures of sustained attention and variability were more modest and did not reach statistical significance.
Together, these results offer support for the idea that musical training is linked to improvements in cognitive skills that are typically impaired in people with ADHD. These skills include attention regulation, memory, information processing, and executive control—abilities that are essential for managing daily life, achieving academic success, and functioning well in work and social settings.
Raz pointed out that these effects are likely tied to the demands of instrumental practice. Playing an instrument involves sustained focus, memory, motor coordination, and the ability to process complex auditory and visual information. Over time, these mental workouts may strengthen the brain circuits involved in attention and executive function. Prior brain imaging research has shown that musicians tend to have structural differences in brain regions linked to control and regulation, such as the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum—areas that are also implicated in ADHD.
Although the study used a cross-sectional design rather than a randomized experiment, Raz took steps to control for alternative explanations. The two groups were matched on several key variables, including educational background and symptom severity, and the statistical analyses corrected for multiple comparisons.But the authors acknowledge that causality cannot be firmly established. It’s possible that individuals with better cognitive control are more likely to stick with musical training over time, rather than music being the cause of those improvements.
The study also did not distinguish between different subtypes of ADHD, such as predominantly inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive presentations. Future research could explore whether certain musical instruments or types of training are more beneficial for specific symptom profiles. Longitudinal studies that follow individuals over time as they begin and continue musical training would also help clarify the direction of the relationship. Including neuroimaging techniques could shed light on the brain changes that accompany these cognitive differences.
Despite these limitations, the findings support the idea that instrumental music training could be a valuable supplement to existing ADHD treatments. The fact that some participants began playing music after the age of 17 suggests that it’s not too late for individuals with ADHD to benefit from musical practice. Integrating structured music programs into therapeutic settings—particularly those focused on cognitive training—could offer a rewarding, non-stigmatizing way to improve functioning in people with ADHD.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-024-02048-2) Enhancing cognitive abilities in young adults with ADHD through instrumental music training: a comparative analysis of musicians and non‑musicians,” was published November 13, 2024.

(https://www.psypost.org/evening-chronotypes-and-attachment-insecurity-linked-to-depression-in-flight-attendants-study-finds/) Evening chronotypes and attachment insecurity linked to depression in flight attendants, study finds
Apr 23rd 2025, 12:00

New research published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2024.2431078) Chronobiology International suggests that flight attendants with a preference for evening activity and those who report insecure attachment styles may be more likely to experience symptoms of depression. The study introduces a new “Chrono-Attachment Health Model” to better understand mental health risks in populations with disrupted circadian rhythms, such as shift workers and airline staff.
Flight attendants work in one of the most circadian-disrupted occupations, with irregular schedules, night shifts, and frequent travel across time zones. These patterns desynchronize the body’s internal clock from the external environment, making flight attendants particularly vulnerable to what researchers call “social jetlag” and chronic sleep-wake misalignment. While previous research has linked circadian disruption to negative health outcomes, few studies have examined how chronotype—an individual’s preferred timing for sleep and activity—and attachment styles jointly contribute to mental health outcomes in this setting.
“I became interested in this topic after noticing ongoing environmental stressors and time disruptions affecting under-researched shift worker groups such as flight attendants,” said study author Karim Noureldin, a psychologist and psychotherapist. “This observation fueled my curiosity to explore the connections between individual differences within this population and their mental health outcomes, aiming to guide future interventions tailored for shift workers and frequent travelers.”
Noureldin and his co-author, University of Strathclyde psychology professor Aliyah Rehman, surveyed 288 international flight attendants between the ages of 21 and 55. The majority of participants were female (about 71%) and white (76%), with most based in the United States, Canada, or the United Kingdom. All participants completed a series of online questionnaires measuring their chronotype (whether they preferred morning or evening activity), attachment style, and levels of depression and anxiety. The survey also collected demographic data, job tenure, and information about medication use that could influence mental health.
The most common chronotypes among the flight attendants were intermediate (42%) and evening (41%) types. Only a small minority were classified as morning types. These results align with findings from other studies on shift workers, where eveningness is especially common. Regarding attachment, insecure styles were more prevalent than secure ones, with dismissive-avoidant attachment being the most frequent among the insecure subtypes.
The researchers found that individuals with an evening chronotype reported significantly more symptoms of depression than those with morning or intermediate chronotypes, even after accounting for age, sex, and medication use. However, chronotype was not associated with anxiety levels. In contrast, both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance were significantly related to higher levels of both depression and anxiety—and these associations were stronger than those observed for chronotype.
To better understand how these factors interact, the researchers conducted a mediation analysis. They found that attachment avoidance partially explained the link between anxiety and depression. In other words, flight attendants who reported higher anxiety and also tended to avoid emotional closeness were more likely to experience depressive symptoms. This suggests that how individuals manage emotional stress—especially through emotional distancing—may exacerbate mental health difficulties over time, particularly when anxiety is already present.
This mediation effect was statistically significant, indicating a small but meaningful indirect pathway from anxiety to depression via attachment avoidance. Attachment anxiety, on the other hand, did not demonstrate a significant mediation effect. These findings echo earlier research indicating that different types of insecure attachment may influence mental health in distinct ways.
The study also found that female flight attendants reported higher levels of depression and anxiety than male flight attendants. This is consistent with broader trends showing women are more likely to experience mood disorders, which may be compounded in high-stress professions like aviation. Younger flight attendants were also more likely to report depressive symptoms, consistent with prior research indicating that younger adults may be more vulnerable to mood disturbances.
“It is important to be aware of a person’s natural circadian rhythm—whether they’re a morning, evening, or intermediate type—and their attachment style, which reflects how they form emotional bonds,” Noureldin told PsyPost. “These factors can interact and relate to symptoms of depression and anxiety.”
“Our findings showed that flight attendants leaned toward being more evening-oriented. Individuals with this chronotype were more likely to experience depression. We also saw that those who worry about relationships (high attachment anxiety) or who tend to avoid emotional closeness (high attachment avoidance) were more likely to report symptoms of depression or anxiety.”
“Interestingly, avoidance in relationships appears to partially explain the connection between anxiety and depression. This suggests that the way someone distances themselves emotionally may influence how anxiety turns into depression—especially in flight attendants, who face disrupted sleep and social stressors. This highlights the importance of considering both circadian and emotional-relational factors when supporting mental health in shift-working populations.”
“This perspective can help uncover deeper psychological processes in therapy—whether through a biopsychosocial framework, psychotherapeutic interventions, or policy decisions,” Noureldin added. “If you can target and change the mediator—in this case, attachment avoidance—you might reduce its negative impact on mental health.”
Like all research, the study has limitations. Because the data were collected at a single time point, the researchers cannot determine whether chronotype or attachment style causes depression and anxiety or whether these traits develop in response to mental health challenges. Also, while the sample was fairly large and included flight attendants from various countries, it was predominantly female and white, which may limit how broadly the results apply.
Still, the findings offer valuable insights into how circadian and psychological factors may interact in a profession known for mental health vulnerabilities. The study introduces the “Chrono-Attachment Health Model,” a framework that combines chronobiology and attachment theory to understand mental well-being in shift-working populations. This model could inform future interventions tailored to flight attendants and similar professions. For example, chronotherapy or attachment-based counseling could help reduce the emotional toll of disrupted sleep and interpersonal stress.
The authors suggest future research should explore these relationships using longitudinal methods to track changes over time. Studying other shift-working groups—such as nurses, first responders, or offshore workers—could also help determine whether similar patterns exist across different high-stress occupations.
“I plan to expand on the research, utilize the Chrono-Attachment Health Model diagnostic tool in other populations, and conduct research in more clinical settings to explore potential interventions for shift workers,” Noureldin said. “Additionally, I’m interested in investigating other mental health outcomes or relationships.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2024.2431078) Exploring the relationships between chronotypes, attachment styles, and mental health in flight attendants,” was authored by Karim Noureldin and Aliyah Rehman.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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