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(https://www.psypost.org/trypophobia-triggers-stronger-disgust-than-fear-new-study-shows/) Trypophobia triggers stronger disgust than fear, new study shows
Apr 11th 2025, 10:00

People who feel uncomfortable or even repulsed by clusters of small holes—such as those found in lotus seed pods or honeycombs—are more likely to feel disgust than fear when confronted with these images, according to a new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218251323236) Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. The findings suggest that trypophobia, a phenomenon often described as a fear of holes, may be more accurately understood as a disgust-based response aimed at avoiding disease. However, fear also plays a role, particularly in individuals most sensitive to these images.
Trypophobia is not officially recognized as a clinical phobia, but a substantial number of people report feeling disturbed when they see clusters of holes. These reactions can range from mild unease to intense physical symptoms, such as nausea, goosebumps, or racing heart.
Researchers have (https://www.psypost.org/psychology-afraid-of-holes-evolution-may-hold-the-answer-to-trypophobia/) proposed two evolutionary explanations for why these responses occur. One theory suggests that trypophobia originates from an ancient fear of dangerous animals, like venomous snakes or insects, which often have surface patterns similar to hole clusters. According to this account, fear should be the dominant reaction.
The second theory suggests that trypophobia is a product of the behavioral immune system—a set of psychological responses that help humans avoid sources of infection. This disease avoidance account predicts that disgust, rather than fear, should dominate.
Although both theories have some empirical support, the emotional profile of trypophobia remains unclear. Earlier studies have not always included direct comparisons between fear and disgust, and very few have assessed both emotions in response to trypophobic, fear-inducing, and disgust-inducing images. The researchers behind the new study, led by Gaëtan Thiebaut and Patrick Bonin at Université Bourgogne Europe, sought to fill this gap by measuring how strongly people react to different types of images across both emotional dimensions.
Bonin is a professor of cognitive psychology at Université Bourgogne Europe and a member of the LEAD-CNRS laboratory, where he conducts research on memory and the behavioral immune system. Thiebaut holds a PhD in cognitive psychology and specializes in research on memory and pathogen avoidance.
“On a personal level, we both find it difficult to look at clusters of holes, such as a lotus flower or a wasp’s nest, without feeling uncomfortable,” the researchers explained. “In fact, when Gaëtan started to work with trypophobic images, he realized that he was trypophobic. Also, trypophobia is related to one of our favorite research topics: the behavioral immune system.”
“Trypophobia is a fascinating area of research that affects a relatively large number of people (on average between 9% to 18% of trypophobic individuals per study), and has evolutionary explanations that can sometimes seem surprising to the uninitiated.”
The research team recruited 291 adult volunteers, most of whom were female university students. Participants completed an online survey in which they viewed 40 photographs divided into four categories: trypophobic images (e.g., lotus pods, wasp nests), frightening images (e.g., snakes, guns), disgusting images (e.g., mouldy food, dirty toilets), and neutral images (e.g., kitchen utensils). These photos were standardized for size and emotional characteristics, using validated norms where possible.
For each image, participants rated how much fear and disgust it elicited, as well as how difficult it was to look at the image, using a 5-point scale. The researchers used these ratings to compare emotional responses across image types and to identify participants who were particularly sensitive to trypophobic stimuli. Those with the highest discomfort ratings were analyzed separately to assess whether their emotional patterns differed from those of the broader sample.
Across the full sample, trypophobic images were rated as more disgusting than frightening. While these images were not rated as disgusting as the explicitly disgusting ones, they still triggered more disgust than fear. This was true even though trypophobic images were also seen as more frightening than neutral images, showing that both emotions are present to some degree.
Interestingly, the participants who reported the most difficulty viewing the trypophobic images—those in the top 10 percent of discomfort ratings—showed a different pattern. For these individuals, trypophobic images were rated as more disgusting than even the disgust-inducing images, and more frightening than the frightening ones. In other words, for the people most sensitive to clusters of holes, trypophobic images were uniquely disturbing across both emotional dimensions.
Even among these highly sensitive participants, however, disgust remained the dominant emotion. This supports the idea that trypophobia is more closely linked to disease avoidance than to the fear of predators. These findings are consistent with previous work showing that people with high scores on the Trypophobia Questionnaire tend to report core and pathogen-related disgust more than moral or sexual disgust.
“Trypophobic participants (in our study, this corresponds to participants with visual discomfort ratings when viewing trypophobia-inducing pictures above the 9th decile) feel more disgust than fear at the sight of images of clusters of holes,” Bonin and Thiebaut told PsyPost. “But above all, these stimuli are very specific for them, because they evoke even more fear than non-trypophobic fear-inducing pictures such as the images of spiders, snakes, or a person pointing a gun and more disgust than non-trypophobic disgust-inducing pictures, such as the images of surgery, dirty toilets, or moldy burgers.”
The results also help clarify why both fear and disgust can be part of the trypophobic experience. Disgust may serve to prevent contact with potential sources of infection—such as spoiled food or skin lesions—while fear may help initiate flight from a perceived threat. The fact that both emotions are activated could reflect how our minds respond to stimuli that might signal either kind of danger.
As with any study, there are limitations to consider. The sample was predominantly female and made up largely of psychology students, which may affect how generalizable the findings are to the broader population. Prior research suggests that women may be more likely than men to report trypophobia, so future studies should include more diverse samples.
Another limitation concerns the images themselves. The researchers selected fear and disgust images from general categories, such as weapons or hygiene-related scenes. A more targeted comparison might involve disgusting images related to skin diseases, which may more closely resemble trypophobic patterns. This could help test whether specific forms of disgust are more relevant to trypophobia.
“We will continue this type of work with a larger number of trypophobic images to examine whether there are variations in the emotions felt (disgust, fear) according to the type of trypophobic stimuli (natural elements, artefacts),” Bonin and Thiebaut said. “We also want to further test the hypothesis that trypophobia is essentially due to activation of the behavioral immune system, and is therefore rooted in our evolutionary past.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218251323236) Is trypophobia more related to disgust than to fear? Assessing the disease avoidance and ancestral fear hypotheses,” was authored by Gaëtan Thiebaut, Alain Méot, Pavol Prokop, and Patrick Bonin.

(https://www.psypost.org/parasocial-jealousy-is-real-study-finds-fans-feel-more-threatened-when-rivals-differ-from-them/) Parasocial jealousy is real: Study finds fans feel more threatened when rivals differ from them
Apr 11th 2025, 09:00

New research published in (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2025-79561-001) Psychology of Popular Media finds that people in one-sided romantic attachments with celebrities — known as parasocial romantic relationships — can experience jealousy when their favorite media figures begin a real-life romance. But not just any relationship triggers these feelings. The study suggests that jealousy is most likely when people feel the celebrity’s new partner is different from themselves, and when the new relationship feels like it might end the imagined connection altogether.
Parasocial romantic relationships, or PSRRs, are emotional bonds that people form with media figures such as celebrities, fictional characters, or influencers. While the target of the relationship is typically unaware of the admirer, the feelings involved can be meaningful and even mirror those of traditional relationships. Because jealousy is a common feature in close romantic bonds, the researchers behind this study wanted to know whether similar emotional reactions occur in parasocial contexts — especially when a celebrity becomes romantically involved with someone else.
The study builds on earlier work suggesting that jealousy can occur even when only one person is emotionally invested in a relationship. Prior studies showed that fans who imagine themselves in a romantic bond with a media figure can react negatively to news of that celebrity entering a new romantic relationship.
However, the current study goes a step further by testing a well-known psychological theory of jealousy that was developed for social relationships — specifically, White and Mullen’s model, which proposes that jealousy arises when people perceive a threat to a valued relationship. This threat can take the form of feeling that the relationship will end, that benefits such as attention or closeness will be lost, or that one’s self-esteem is being undermined.
“I typically study the ‘dark side’ of relationships and relationship stressors such as jealousy in more traditional social relationships. The third author on this study is a graduate student who is interested in parasocial relationships. She needed more research experience, so we merged our interests into a study that we both found intriguing,” said study author Jessica Frampton, an assistant professor at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
“To me, parasocial relationships seemed like a good context to test boundary conditions of theorizing surrounding jealousy. Using interpersonal theories (or a model in this case) with parasocial relationships also lets us test the assertion that parasocial relationships function similarly to more reciprocal social relationships. So, my personal interest in this particular research topic was mainly motivated by a desire to test and refine theorizing while helping out a graduate student!”
Frampton, along with co-authors Jesse Fox and Brooke Bennington, recruited 309 participants from a college student pool who reported feeling romantic attraction toward a media figure. Participants were asked to identify a celebrity or character they had a crush on, and a romantic rival — someone the target media figure was or had been romantically linked to. The sample included a wide range of media figures, from actors and musicians to fictional characters and YouTubers.
Participants completed surveys measuring how strong their parasocial romantic relationship was, how jealous they felt about the celebrity’s romantic involvement with someone else, and how threatened they felt in three specific ways: by a loss of benefits from the relationship, by damage to their self-esteem, and by the potential end of the imagined relationship. They also rated how similar they felt to the romantic rival, which allowed researchers to explore whether this perceived similarity influenced how threatening the rival seemed.
The findings showed that stronger parasocial romantic relationships were linked to higher levels of jealousy. But when it came to what actually explained this jealousy, only one type of perceived threat mattered: the fear that the relationship might end. The other two possible sources of threat — losing benefits from the relationship and damage to self-esteem — did not significantly explain the link between relationship strength and jealousy once all three were considered together.
In other words, people who were more romantically attached to a media figure tended to feel jealous not because they feared they were less attractive or would get less emotional payoff, but because they worried the imagined connection itself might disappear.
The study also uncovered a more nuanced finding. Whether people felt threatened by the rival depended on how similar they thought they were to that person. Interestingly, feeling dissimilar to the rival intensified the perceived threat, especially the sense that the parasocial bond could be lost. For people who felt that the rival was unlike them, their strong attachment to the celebrity predicted greater fear that the relationship was over, which in turn predicted more jealousy. On the other hand, those who saw the rival as similar to themselves felt less threatened and, as a result, experienced less jealousy.
“People who have ‘celebrity crushes’ can become jealous when their target media figures become romantically involved with someone else, especially if that ‘someone else’ is different from the person with the crush,” Frampton told PsyPost. “This jealousy occurs because it feels like their connection to the media figure will be lost rather than because the media figure’s new relationship threatens their self-esteem or reduces any sort of benefits they get.”
This pattern was somewhat unexpected. Prior research has shown mixed results when it comes to how rival similarity affects jealousy in traditional relationships. In some cases, people feel more jealous when rivals are similar because they seem more directly comparable. In other situations, dissimilarity makes the rival seem more threatening because it suggests that the partner is looking for something entirely different. In this study, the dissimilarity appeared to matter more — perhaps because it made fans feel that they were fundamentally not what the celebrity wanted, raising the possibility that their imagined connection was no longer viable.
“The finding regarding perceived relationship existence threat was not that surprising, as that threat is often considered the primary threat in more traditional social relationships as well,” Frampton said. “However, the finding about perceived similarity to the rival was somewhat surprising. I could envision both similar and dissimilar rivals as upsetting, so to learn that it was the dissimilarity that was the issue was interesting.”
Although the researchers found meaningful patterns, they also noted some limitations. The participants were mostly young college students, which means the results might not reflect how other age groups or more diverse populations experience parasocial jealousy. The average levels of jealousy and threat reported in the study were also relatively low, which is consistent with past research showing that parasocial relationships tend to be less intense than face-to-face romantic relationships. That said, stronger reactions might be found among more passionate fan groups or people with particularly strong parasocial bonds.
“I have a pipeline of research on jealousy in more traditional social relationships,” Frampton added. “I often study jealousy regarding a partner’s prior romantic and sexual experiences (i.e., retroactive jealousy), so I have studies on why people experience retroactive jealousy and how people communicate about it with their partners. I am also continuing to test, extend, and refine my specialness meaning framework model of jealousy.”
The study, “(https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ppm0000589) Jealousy, Threat, and Romantic Rivals in Parasocial Romantic Relationships,” was authored by Jessica R. Frampton, Jesse Fox, and Brooke Bennington.

(https://www.psypost.org/wildfires-in-canada-left-psychological-scars-study-finds-high-ptsd-and-stress-levels/) Wildfires in Canada left psychological scars: Study finds high PTSD and stress levels
Apr 11th 2025, 08:00

A survey of Nova Scotia and Alberta residents conducted during the 2023 wildfires found that 52% had very low resilience to stress, while 39% had likely developed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Unemployed individuals were three times more likely to experience both low resilience and PTSD symptoms compared to those who were employed. The research was published in the (https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1343399) Frontiers in Public Health.
In 2023, large wildfires occurred across multiple regions of Canada. Alberta and Nova Scotia experienced some of the most extensive and severe fires, leading to states of emergency and mass evacuations. British Columbia and the Northwest Territories also faced large, uncontrollable fires that affected vast areas of forestland. Quebec experienced unusually high temperatures and drought conditions, which also led to wildfires.
The wildfires predominantly affected forested areas rich in flammable biomass. However, as many urban areas extended into these forested regions, the fires caused significant damage to residential homes and other structures. Thousands of residents were evacuated. Additionally, huge amounts of smoke from the fires lowered air quality, with effects sometimes extending far beyond the areas directly impacted by the flames.
Study author Medard K. Adu and his colleagues aimed to estimate the prevalence of low resilience and likely PTSD among residents of Alberta and Nova Scotia during the 2023 wildfires. They noted that previous findings indicate material damage is not the only type of harm suffered by communities affected by wildfires. Research suggests that PTSD symptoms may also be on the rise in these communities. The authors sought to estimate the extent of this impact by conducting a survey.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event. It is characterized by severe anxiety, flashbacks, and uncontrollable thoughts about the incident.
The study included 298 residents of Alberta and Nova Scotia who completed an online survey designed by the authors. While a total of 1,802 individuals began the survey, only these 298 completed it. The survey was conducted in May and June 2023, during the height of the wildfires. The median age of participants from Nova Scotia was 46, while the median age in Alberta was 50. A majority of participants (85%) were women; 64% were employed, 56% were in a relationship, and 67% lived in their own homes at the time of the study.
The survey assessed PTSD symptoms using the PTSD Checklist–Civilian Version, and resilience using the Brief Resilience Scale.
Results showed that 52% of participants had low resilience, while 39% self-reported substantial PTSD symptoms, which the authors classified as likely PTSD. Unemployed participants were three times more likely to experience both low resilience and PTSD symptoms compared to employed participants. Additionally, those with a history of mental health diagnoses were about four times more likely to experience PTSD symptoms compared to those with no such history.
“This study established that unemployment and a history of mental health diagnosis predicted likely PTSD, while unemployment was associated with low resilience during the wildfire,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the prevalence of PTSD symptoms during the 2023 wildfires in Alberta and Nova Scotia. However, it should be noted that the sample consisted of online respondents, mostly women, and only a small portion of those who initially started the survey. It is possible that studies using more representative samples of the general population might yield different results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1343399) Exploring the prevalence and predictors of low resilience and likely PTSD in residents of two provinces in Canada during the 2023 wildfires,” was authored by Medard K. Adu, Reham Shalaby, Belinda Agyapong, Raquel da Luz Dias, and Vincent I. O. Agyapong.

(https://www.psypost.org/dysfunctional-parenting-may-lead-to-adult-problems-through-personality-traits-like-low-conscientiousness/) Dysfunctional parenting may lead to adult problems through personality traits like low conscientiousness
Apr 11th 2025, 07:00

Adults who experienced dysfunctional parenting in childhood may struggle more with daily functioning later in life, and this could be partly due to the way those early experiences shape their personality. A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251329782) Psychological Reports found that individuals who reported neglectful, abusive, or overly controlling parenting styles in their upbringing were more likely to experience current impairments in areas such as work, relationships, and emotional well-being. Interestingly, this connection seemed to be linked not to sadistic or psychopathic traits, as initially expected, but to lower levels of conscientiousness—a basic personality trait that includes being organized, responsible, and self-disciplined.
Previous research has shown that parenting plays an important role in emotional development. Children who grow up with inconsistent, harsh, or neglectful parenting often face emotional challenges later in life, including difficulties in regulating emotions, forming close relationships, and maintaining positive self-esteem. These difficulties can contribute to what psychologists call “functional impairment”—struggles with everyday tasks and responsibilities.
But why does this happen? One possibility is that dysfunctional parenting shapes a child’s personality in lasting ways. Past research has linked these types of parenting styles to antisocial traits such as psychopathy and sadism. These traits are associated with impulsivity, aggression, and lack of empathy, which can interfere with healthy adult functioning. However, it remained unclear whether these more extreme traits played a unique role or whether the link could be better explained by broader personality traits.
“It is well-known that dysfunctional parenting styles in childhood can have a negative impact on overall functioning that lasts into adulthood. However, the specific processes that indirectly contribute to this relationship have remained unclear,” explained study authors Charlotte Kinrade (an assistant professor at Kennesaw State University) and (https://sites.ua.edu/diylab/) Peter J. Castagna (an assistant professor at the University of Alabama).
“Put differently, we were interested in how a third variable partially explains the relation been experiencing negative parenting styles and everyday problems people experience as adults. Prior research has hinted that personality traits, like psychopathy or sadism, could be an important factor to consider, as they are linked to being exposed to maladaptive parenting styles and current impairment as an adult.”
“However, it was also important to consider broader basic personality characteristics, such as agreeableness and conscientiousness, that have considerable overlap with psychopathy and sadism. That way, we would have a better understanding as to whether the potential findings are specific to psychopathy/sadism or if they are more broadly reflective of low agreeableness and low conscientiousness.”
The researchers recruited 446 adults living in the United States through an online platform called Prolific. Participants were diverse in age (average age of 46), gender (just over half were female), education, and income. All participants completed a battery of questionnaires designed to measure their personality, perceptions of their upbringing, and current functioning in everyday life.
To assess dysfunctional parenting, participants answered questions about how their parents behaved toward them before the age of 16. These included items on parental indifference (such as being emotionally unavailable), abuse (physical, verbal, or sexual), and overcontrol (excessive protection or restriction of autonomy). Each of these parenting styles was measured separately for mothers and fathers.
The researchers also measured psychopathy and sadism, using established self-report questionnaires. In addition, they assessed two basic personality traits—agreeableness and conscientiousness—using a widely used personality inventory. Functional impairment was measured by asking participants how often they experienced specific problems in the past month, such as trouble with work, relationships, and emotional regulation.
The results suggested that people who perceived their parents as neglectful, abusive, or overly controlling were more likely to report having difficulties functioning in adulthood. In the initial models, these links were explained in part by higher levels of psychopathy—but not sadism. That is, individuals who experienced dysfunctional parenting in childhood were more likely to score higher on psychopathy, which in turn was associated with more functional impairment in adulthood.
However, when the researchers included conscientiousness and agreeableness in their models, the picture changed. The effects of psychopathy disappeared, and the link between dysfunctional parenting and adult impairment was instead explained by low conscientiousness. This means that people who had more negative parenting experiences were also more likely to score lower on conscientiousness, which was then linked to greater functional problems.
“We were surprised that low conscientiousness was the personality construct to partially bridge the gap between the experience of dysfunctional parenting in childhood and present-day functional impairment, rather than psychopathy or sadism,” Kinrade and Castagna told PsyPost. “Low conscientiousness manifests as behavioral tendencies like failing to plan ahead and impulsivity, so it is possible that these aspects of low conscientiousness more strongly contribute to general impairment in adulthood rather than the broader antagonistic behavioral tendencies that are associated with psychopathy and sadism.”
In particular, the study found that maternal parenting had stronger associations with adult outcomes than paternal parenting, especially when it came to maternal indifference, abuse, and overcontrol. These maternal styles were more consistently linked to low conscientiousness and, through it, to higher levels of adult impairment.
Importantly, these effects were modest in size, but they still had practical significance. Even small differences in conscientiousness translated into noticeable differences in how much people struggled with daily functioning. For example, a small shift in conscientiousness could lead to a 20 percent increase in reported problems in everyday life. The researchers also found that these patterns held across different ages and were not limited to younger participants.
“Practically, society bears the financial burden of an impaired populous, with increased spending on healthcare, unemployment/welfare, and incarceration. Our work suggests that investing in parenting practices might mitigate downstream effects on functional impairment directly and through its links with personality indirectly. Education to prevent dysfunctional parenting could provide an avenue for reducing costs and could foster a more well-adjusted population.”
While the study provides valuable insights, it also has some limitations. First, the researchers used a cross-sectional design, which means that all data were collected at one time point. This makes it difficult to know for sure whether childhood experiences caused changes in personality or functioning, or whether other unmeasured factors were involved. Longitudinal studies that follow people over time are needed to clarify these relationships.
Second, all measures relied on self-report. Although the tools used are well-validated, people’s memories of their childhood or perceptions of their own personality may not always be accurate. Incorporating reports from others or using behavioral measures in future studies could strengthen the conclusions.
“Our study is based on people’s memories of their childhoods, which may not always be entirely accurate — people remember the past through their current emotional lens,” Kinrade and Castagna explained. “Also, because the study was cross-sectional, causal inferences should not be inferred. Our study should not be interpreted as saying that dysfunctional parenting causes decreased conscientiousness, for example, which would require a longitudinal design.”
The authors see this study as an important first step in understanding how early life experiences shape adult outcomes through personality. They are especially interested in exploring what might help people cope with or overcome the effects of dysfunctional parenting. Future research might look at factors that could reduce the likelihood of later functional problems.
“We are also interested in what aspects may buffer against the long-term negative effects of dysfunctional parenting, such as attachment and coping,” the researchers said. “We felt like the current study was an important initial step towards understanding these complex relationships.”
The study, “(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/00332941251329782) The Lasting Effects of Bad Parenting: Effects of Dysfunctional Parenting on Functional Impairment Through Antisocial Personality,” was authored by Charlotte Kinrade, William Hart, and Peter J. Castagna.

(https://www.psypost.org/premarital-pregnancy-does-not-predict-poor-marital-outcomes-when-context-is-considered/) Premarital pregnancy does not predict poor marital outcomes when context is considered
Apr 11th 2025, 06:00

A new study published in the journal (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pere.70001) Personal Relationships challenges longstanding assumptions about the effects of premarital pregnancy on couples’ relationships. The findings suggest that, when accounting for demographic factors and the dynamics of the relationship itself, couples who experience a pregnancy before marriage are not necessarily more likely to have worse marital outcomes than those who do not. Instead, the extent to which both partners share a similar sense of commitment to marriage during their courtship plays a more significant role in shaping their relationship quality.
Previous research has found that premarital pregnancy is associated with lower relationship satisfaction and greater instability. However, these earlier studies often failed to control for other factors that can influence outcomes, such as education level, income, and cultural background. The authors of the current research sought to determine whether premarital pregnancy, in itself, predicts marital dissatisfaction and disillusionment—or whether these outcomes are more closely tied to the broader context of a couple’s life and relationship trajectory.
“While researching the topic of premarital pregnancy, child outcomes, and coparenting relationships, I noticed that much of the literature took a deficit approach,” said study author (https://www.depts.ttu.edu/hs/hdfs/research/smitten/index.php) Emma Willis-Grossmann, a doctoral candidate at Texas Tech University.
“The research often framed the premarital pregnancy as the beginning of the end for a happy and satisfying relationship between the parents. Additionally, when researchers compared couples who had a premarital pregnancy to couples who did not, the researchers’ analyses often did not take into account that these two types of couples likely differed on more than just presence or absence of a premarital pregnancy, such as age, socioeconomic status, or relationship length.”
“We used statistical methods to match, one-by-one, each premaritally pregnant couple with a nonpregnant couple on demographic characteristics, before comparing the two groups’ transition to marriage and marital quality. I wanted my research to consider all aspects of a relationship rather than limiting a relationship to one event.”
The researchers conducted two studies. The first focused on 47 premaritally pregnant and 47 demographically matched nonpregnant newlywed couples from a predominantly Hispanic community in southwest Texas. The second used a national dataset of 19 cohabiting couples with young children (indicating a recent premarital pregnancy) and 19 matched cohabiting couples without children.
In Study 1, participants were recruited through county marriage license records and local advertisements. Eligible couples were in their first marriage and had been married for six months or less. The final sample of 94 couples was selected using a statistical matching technique to ensure that pregnant and nonpregnant couples were similar in terms of age, income, relationship length, and the amount of time spent cohabiting before marriage.
Couples completed questionnaires and participated in interviews to map out the development of their relationship. Each partner drew a timeline tracking their perceived probability of marrying their partner over time, along with key courtship milestones such as first sex, first feelings of love, and engagement. These timelines allowed the researchers to assess how quickly each partner’s commitment to marriage grew and whether their trajectories aligned. Participants also reported on their marital satisfaction and feelings of disillusionment.
Study 2 analyzed data from a national survey of cohabiting couples collected in 2010. The researchers identified couples who had a child aged two or younger and matched them with childless cohabiting couples who were similar in age, income, and relationship length. Participants reported their relationship satisfaction, feelings of disillusionment, and their perceptions of the likelihood of marrying or breaking up.
Across both studies, the researchers found that premarital pregnancy was not strongly associated with worse relationship outcomes. In Study 1, only one significant difference emerged: nonpregnant women became certain they wanted to marry their partner slightly earlier than pregnant women. Other measures, including marital satisfaction and disillusionment, did not differ significantly between groups.
“The lack of significant difference between premaritally pregnant couples’ and nonpregnant couples’ relationship development and outcomes was surprising,” Willis-Grossmann told PsyPost. “Although it was what we anticipated to some extent (because we statistically equalized pregnant and nonpregnant couples’ demographic profiles before comparing their relationship development and outcomes), it was still surprising to see just how little difference there was between these groups’ relationships.”
What did predict more favorable relationship outcomes was how closely the partners’ commitment trajectories matched. Couples whose commitment grew at a similar pace were more likely to reach important relationship milestones—such as feeling in love, deciding to marry, and getting engaged—earlier than those whose trajectories diverged. These similarities also predicted shorter courtship durations. However, similarity in commitment trajectories did not consistently predict greater marital satisfaction or lower disillusionment in the early stages of marriage.
In addition to relationship dynamics, the researchers explored cultural attitudes, particularly familism, which refers to the value placed on family relationships and obligations. Among Hispanic husbands in the premaritally pregnant group, stronger familism was linked to taking more time to commit to the relationship and to become certain about marrying. This may suggest a more deliberate decision-making process for men with strong family values, even in the context of a pregnancy.
Study 2 supported the findings from the first sample. Cohabiting couples with and without young children reported similar levels of relationship satisfaction and disillusionment, and their expectations about marriage and breakup were nearly identical. Although the sample size in this study was small, effect sizes were low, suggesting little meaningful difference between the groups.
“My hope is that people learn that outcomes are not determined by one event,” Willis-Grossmann said. “Rather, outcomes are determined by a variety of events, demographics, and small decisions we make every day. Additionally, I hope that when people read statistics appearing to link premarital pregnancy with more negative marital/relationship outcomes, they will look closely at what variables were being tested to see if the researchers considered other contextual factors.”
“One variable, aside from pregnancy, that really seems to be a good barometer of how well a premarital relationship is going is the extent to which the two partners are on the same page regarding how committed they are to marriage at the same points in time.”
The researchers noted some limitations. “The sample size in Study 1 was relatively small, because it is not easy to recruit both partners to participate in a study and only some were premaritally pregnant. Second, all couples in Study 1 eventually married, so our premaritally pregnant group may have been more committed and stable than all unmarried pregnant couples who are out there. Our results, therefore, may stem to some extent from our premaritally pregnant couples being unusually well-functioning. Study 2 addresses this limitation, however, by using a national dataset of cohabitating couples. We found that there was little difference in relationship quality between cohabiting couples who had a very young child and those who did not.”
Despite these limitations, the study offers a more nuanced understanding of premarital pregnancy. The results suggest that the event of pregnancy does not inevitably set a premarital relationship on a negative path. Instead, outcomes appear to depend more on how the couple manages the relationship, how their commitment evolves, and the broader context in which their relationship unfolds.
“My hope is this research can positively impact practitioners and policymakers,” Willis-Grossmann added. “In particular, I hope that this research is beneficial for Healthy Marriage Initiative programs and can inform the content created for such programs.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.70001) Comparing Premaritally Pregnant Couples and Demographically Matched Nonpregnant Controls on Recalled Relationship Progression and Marital Outcomes,” was authored by Emma Willis-Grossmann, Sylvia Niehuis, Alan Reifman, Dana Weiser, and Jacki Fitzpatrick.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-uncovers-how-poor-sleep-sets-the-stage-for-nightmares-but-not-the-other-way-around/) New study uncovers how poor sleep sets the stage for nightmares—but not the other way around
Apr 10th 2025, 14:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.14417) Journal of Sleep Research offers insight into how disrupted sleep and nightmares are related. Using wearable technology to track sleep patterns in the homes of participants, researchers found that nights with disturbed sleep tended to be followed by nightmares—but nightmares themselves didn’t make future sleep worse. The findings suggest that trouble staying asleep may create the conditions that make nightmares more likely, rather than nightmares causing insomnia in the short term.
The study was designed to explore whether nightmares and insomnia influence each other over time. Previous research has shown strong associations between nightmares and mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and even suicidal thoughts. However, scientists are still working to understand the everyday factors that lead to the appearance of nightmares. One promising theory suggests that sleep disruptions—such as waking up frequently during the night—may increase emotional vulnerability, making people more likely to experience disturbing dreams. This study aimed to test that theory in a natural sleep setting, using both brainwave data and daily self-reports to track when and how nightmares occur.
To test these ideas, researchers recruited 61 adult participants living in the United States. Each participant wore a device called the DREEM 3 headband while they slept at home over a two-week period. This device uses sensors to measure brain activity and provides detailed data about sleep structure, including how long a person spends in different stages of sleep. Participants also completed surveys each morning and evening, reporting on their sleep quality, how refreshed they felt, and any dreams they remembered. These reports were reviewed by trained raters, who categorized them based on whether the dream qualified as a nightmare. A dream was labeled as a nightmare if it included themes like fear, physical danger, or other threatening content—especially if it caused the person to wake up.
The researchers specifically focused on a sleep measure called “wake after sleep onset,” which refers to how long a person spends awake during the night after initially falling asleep. This is a standard way to track sleep disturbance and is often used as an indicator of insomnia. They also measured time spent in deep sleep, known as N3 sleep, which is thought to be important for physical restoration and emotional recovery.
The researchers found that nightmares tended to occur on nights that followed particularly restless sleep. If a participant experienced more frequent or prolonged awakenings one night, they were significantly more likely to have a nightmare the next night. However, sleep quality on the same night as the nightmare, or two nights before, did not seem to have the same effect. This pattern suggests that disturbed sleep may make people more emotionally sensitive or vulnerable during the next night’s sleep, which could increase the chance of having a nightmare.
Interestingly, the reverse did not hold true. Having a nightmare did not significantly increase sleep disturbance that night or over the following two nights. In other words, while poor sleep appeared to precede nightmares, nightmares did not immediately lead to worse sleep. However, people who reported more nightmares overall across the two-week period did tend to experience higher levels of sleep disruption in general. This suggests that people who are prone to nightmares may also be more likely to have chronic sleep difficulties, even if a single nightmare doesn’t worsen sleep on its own.
The researchers also discovered something unexpected about the connection between nightmares and deep sleep. They found that the percentage of time spent in N3 sleep was actually higher on nights when nightmares occurred. This might seem counterintuitive, since N3 sleep is usually considered the most restorative stage of sleep.
However, the authors suggest that this may reflect a kind of rebound effect. After a night of poor sleep, the brain may attempt to compensate by spending more time in deep sleep the following night. This rebound might coincide with the emotional intensity that gives rise to nightmares. In other words, nightmares might be more likely to occur during nights when the body is trying to catch up on restorative sleep following a period of disturbance.
This idea is supported by additional findings in the study. When researchers looked at the interaction between previous-night sleep disturbance and current-night deep sleep, they found that the effect of poor sleep on nightmare likelihood was strongest when it was followed by a night of relatively undisturbed sleep. This means that it might not be just poor sleep or just deep sleep that triggers nightmares—but a particular sequence of the two.
Another important aspect of the study was the use of both objective and subjective data. Participants reported how well they thought they slept each night, but these ratings did not predict whether they would have a nightmare. This disconnect between how people feel about their sleep and what actually happens during the night has been found in earlier studies as well. It points to the value of using physiological data to track sleep patterns and understand the factors that lead to nightmares.
Despite these findings, the study does have some limitations. The sample size was relatively small, and participants were responsible for wearing and managing the sleep headbands at home. Although the devices were previously validated against gold-standard sleep studies, the accuracy of data can still vary due to device placement and signal quality. Also, the classification of nightmares relied on subjective dream reports, which means that nights without remembered dreams were not included. This could lead to some underestimation of nightmare frequency.
Future research could build on this study by using laboratory settings to wake participants during specific stages of sleep and ask them about their dreams in real time. It may also be helpful to investigate whether different types of sleep disturbance have different effects on dream content. Additionally, the study did not measure nightmare distress, which is a separate construct from frequency and may be more closely tied to subjective sleep quality.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.14417) The association between sleep disturbance and nightmares: Temporal dynamics of nightmare occurrence and sleep architecture in the home,” was authored by John Balch, Rachel Raider, Chanel Reed, and Patrick McNamara.

(https://www.psypost.org/no-park-no-problem-just-imagining-nature-can-ease-your-stress/) No park? No problem. Just imagining nature can ease your stress
Apr 10th 2025, 13:30

In a study published in the (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494424001191) Journal of Environmental Psychology, researchers found that simply imagining natural environments can significantly reduce stress and promote relaxation—more so than imagining urban settings.
Scientists have long recognized the therapeutic benefits of spending time in nature. Studies have consistently shown that exposure to natural environments, whether through real-world experiences or virtual representations like images and videos, can alleviate stress and enhance psychological well-being.
Theories such as Stress Reduction Theory and Attention Restoration Theory provide frameworks for understanding these benefits. Stress Reduction Theory posits that humans have evolved to respond positively to non-threatening natural environments, which helps counteract stress. Attention Restoration Theory suggests that natural environments allow individuals to recover from mental fatigue by engaging in effortless attention, as opposed to the directed attention required in urban settings.
Despite this understanding, researchers were interested in exploring whether the benefits of nature exposure could be achieved through mental imagery alone. Mental imagery, or “seeing with the mind’s eye,” is a cognitive process that can evoke emotional responses similar to those experienced during actual perception.
By focusing on mental imagery, the researchers aimed to determine whether the positive effects of nature could be replicated without physical exposure—potentially offering a cost-effective therapeutic tool.
To test their hypotheses, researchers Mika Koivisto (University of Turku, Finland) and Simone Grassini (University of Bergen, Norway) conducted a within-subjects study involving 50 students from the University of Turku, with an average age of 23 years.
Participants first completed a cognitively demanding task designed to induce stress. They were then asked to imagine the contents of nature-related words (such as mountain, flower, and seaside) and urban-related words (such as bar, alley, and motorbike) for five minutes each.
The researchers measured subjective restoration using self-report scales, as well as physiological responses including heart rate, heart rate variability, and electrodermal activity. Heart rate variability and electrodermal activity are commonly used as indicators of relaxation and physiological arousal, respectively.
The findings were compelling. Participants reported a stronger sense of restoration after imagining nature-related content compared to urban content. Physiologically, nature imagery was associated with a slower heart rate and higher heart rate variability—both signs of increased relaxation. Electrodermal activity was also stronger during nature imagery, suggesting heightened emotional engagement or positive arousal.
Notably, the benefits of nature imagery were more pronounced among individuals with a stronger connection to nature, highlighting the role of personal preferences and emotional associations in shaping these effects.
Koivisto and Grassini concluded, “These findings have practical implications … for psychological therapies.The present results suggest that when access to nature is not possible, the incorporation of nature imagery instead of actual visits to nature may be a potentially valid alternative.”
While the study provides new insights into the therapeutic potential of mental imagery, there are limitations to consider. For instance, the study’s population was skewed towards young female adults.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102346) The Restorative Effects of Mental Imagery of Nature: A Study on Subjective and Physiological Responses,” was authored by Mika Koivisto and Simone Grassini.

(https://www.psypost.org/researchers-pinpoint-three-distinct-types-of-reactions-to-breakups/) Researchers pinpoint three distinct types of reactions to breakups
Apr 10th 2025, 12:12

When faced with an unwanted breakup, most people respond with sadness, curiosity about the reasons, or attempts to move forward, according to new research published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/14747049241312231) Evolutionary Psychology.
Romantic relationships form a cornerstone of human experience, yet they often end—sometimes unexpectedly. Through the lens of evolutionary theory, researchers suggest that when one partner terminates a relationship the other hoped to maintain, the rejected partner experiences a “fitness cost.” This triggers emotional mechanisms that evolved to either salvage the relationship or prevent similar losses in the future.
Despite extensive research on rejection, scientists have lacked a comprehensive map of how people react when desirable relationships end. In a new study, Menelaos Apostolou and colleagues employed a mixed-methods approach to identify and categorize the full spectrum of emotional and behavioral responses to being left by a romantic partner.
The researchers conducted their investigation in two phases. First, they recruited 219 Greek-speaking adults online who responded to an open-ended question about how they would react if a partner ended a relationship they wanted to continue. After excluding participants without relationship experience, trained research assistants analyzed the responses and identified 79 distinct potential reactions.
In the second phase, a separate group of 442 Greek-speaking participants rated how likely they would be to engage in each of these 79 reactions using a 5-point scale. The researchers then used factor analysis to organize these reactions into broader categories and examined how demographic variables influenced response patterns.
Their analysis revealed 13 major reaction types, including trying to change the partner’s mind, cutting all contact, acceptance, feeling depressed or sad, becoming aggressive, distracting oneself, revenge sex, asking why, seeking psychological help, becoming angry, threatening suicide, and spying on the partner. The most common anticipated reactions were feeling sad (92%), seeking explanations (85%), and attempting distraction (81%). More extreme responses like threatening suicide (2%) or becoming physically aggressive (4%) were rare.
Further analysis grouped these 13 categories into three overarching domains. “Accept and forget” emerged as the most commonly endorsed domain, encompassing strategies like severing contact or immersing oneself in work or hobbies. The “Sadness and depression” domain ranked second, including crying, feeling insecure, and seeking therapy. While least common, the “Physical and psychological aggression” domain still appeared in responses, covering reactions like anger, revenge sex, and self-harm threats.
The researchers found minimal gender differences, with men more likely than women to report they would seek revenge sex. Age played a more significant role—older participants tended toward acceptance, while younger ones more frequently anticipated trying to change their ex-partner’s mind or feelings of depression. Current relationship status did not significantly influence reported reactions.
Of note is that this sample consisted exclusively of Greek-speaking participants recruited through non-random methods, potentially limiting generalizability. Additionally, the study relied on hypothetical scenarios rather than documented experiences of actual breakups, which might create discrepancies between anticipated and actual behaviors.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1177/14747049241312231) How People React to the Termination of an Intimate Relationship: An Exploratory Mixed-Methods Study,” was authored by Menelaos Apostolou, Isaias Taliadoros, and Timo Juhani Lajunen.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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