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(https://www.psypost.org/study-uncovers-disturbing-trend-in-how-sexual-assault-is-discussed-online-in-the-deep-south/) Study uncovers disturbing trend in how sexual assault is discussed online in the Deep South
Sep 20th 2024, 10:00

Researchers examining Facebook comments on news articles about sexual assault in the Deep South of the United States have found that rape myths—false beliefs that excuse perpetrators and blame victims—continue to dominate online discussions. In a study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2286262) Deviant Behavior, they analyzed over 450 comments and discovered that two-thirds of the responses supported traditional rape myths. While some comments showed encouraging support for victims, the study highlights the continued cultural barriers to fully addressing sexual violence in this region.
Rape myths are false beliefs about sexual assault that blame the victim, excuse the perpetrator, or downplay the seriousness of the crime. Despite ongoing efforts to combat these harmful attitudes, they remain prevalent in many parts of the world, including the United States. In this study, researchers focused on the Deep South, a region typically defined as including states like Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.
Known for its deeply rooted conservative and religious values, the Deep South has a cultural landscape that could influence public attitudes about sexual violence. The researchers sought to understand whether support for rape myths in this area remains widespread, despite growing national awareness of these issues.
“I’ve been working with sexual assault response organizations for decades and most interested in the importance of cultural changes (e.g. belief in rape myths) needed to end sexual violence. I’ve also noticed more people challenging rape myths, especially since the #MeToo movement. I wanted to see if that filtered down to the Deep South,” said study author Tina Deshotels, a professor of sociology at Jacksonville State University and co-author of (https://titles.cognella.com/crime-and-deviance-9781793566379) Crime and Deviance: Understanding Problems, Constructing Solutions.
To explore these attitudes, the researchers focused on comments posted on Facebook in response to local news articles about sexual assault. Facebook was chosen because it is one of the most widely used social media platforms, especially in rural areas, and encourages users to share their thoughts and opinions, often without much self-censorship. The comments were gathered from 32 news articles published by two local news outlets between 2015 and 2020. The researchers searched for articles that contained key terms such as “rape” and “sexual assault” and excluded those that had fewer than 50 comments or did not directly pertain to adult sexual violence. Child sexual abuse cases were also excluded, except for instances of statutory rape involving significant age gaps.
After collecting over 2,600 comments, the researchers filtered out irrelevant responses, like personal disagreements or people tagging others. This left them with 455 relevant comments, which were analyzed in multiple rounds of coding.
In the first round, the researchers applied a deductive approach by using an established framework based on a widely accepted rape myth scale. They categorized the comments into traditional rape myths such as “She asked for it,” “She lied,” “He didn’t mean to,” and “It wasn’t really rape.” For comments that did not fit these categories, the researchers created an “Other” category, which was further examined in a second round of coding.
During the second phase, the researchers employed an inductive approach, allowing them to develop new categories based on recurring themes that emerged from the comments. This process helped them refine the “Other” category into specific subcategories, such as blaming others, questioning the timing of the victim’s accusation, and showing sympathy for the accused.
Finally, the researchers grouped the comments into two broad categories: those that undermined the victim and those that supported the victim. This approach provided a structured way to analyze the diverse range of public opinions expressed in the comments.
The majority of the comments (72 percent) undermined the victim in some way. Many of these comments repeated traditional rape myths, with the most common being accusations that the victim lied (27 percent) or that the victim was somehow responsible for the assault (13 percent). For instance, some commenters argued that victims were fabricating their stories for political gain or personal fame, while others suggested that women who dress provocatively or put themselves in risky situations are to blame for their victimization.
Interestingly, the researchers found that political beliefs played a significant role in shaping public opinion about sexual assault. Some commenters claimed that accusations of sexual assault were part of a larger political agenda, particularly in cases involving well-known public figures.
One commenter implied that women were lying about being assaulted to damage the reputation of a politician, framing their accusations as part of a political conspiracy. This type of response was more common in cases where the alleged perpetrator was a prominent political figure, reflecting the intersection of rape myths with political conservatism in the Deep South.
Another common theme in the comments was sympathy for the accused. Some commenters argued that the accused were being unfairly judged and that their lives were being ruined by false allegations. In statutory rape cases, for example, several comments suggested that the accused men should not be held fully accountable because the underage victims “looked older” or were willing participants in the sexual activity. These comments absolved the accused of responsibility by shifting the blame onto the victim for misleading the perpetrator.
Religious themes played a notable role in the comments, often being used to justify or excuse the behavior of those accused of sexual assault or to criticize the victims. Some commenters invoked religious rhetoric to argue for forgiveness of the accused, suggesting that people, including those guilty of sexual misconduct, should be given a chance to repent and change. One comment, for example, referenced a politician accused of assault, stating that “God has done a work in his life” and that he should be forgiven and continue to receive support.
Others framed women’s behavior as problematic through a religious lens, implying that victims were to blame for their assaults due to not adhering to traditional gender roles, with one commenter advising women to be in church instead of participating in society.
Deshotels was particularly surprised by “people relying on religion to justify and/or excuse rape, for example, the ‘ladies you should be in church right now’ comment.”
Despite the prevalence of victim-blaming, a significant minority of comments (28 percent) supported the victim. These comments often challenged rape myths by highlighting the reasons victims might delay reporting their assault or by explicitly calling out other commenters for victim-blaming. Some comments focused on educating others about the legal definition of rape, especially in statutory rape cases where the victim was underage. A few commenters also urged others to be mindful of their language, pointing out that their words could be read by survivors of sexual assault and could contribute to their revictimization.
“While there is still a good bit of rape myth acceptance in the Deep South, there are also a significant number of comments that challenge victim blaming, support victims, and attempt to educate the public,” Deshotels told PsyPost. “These findings can be used in targeted educational campaigns that take into account the context of specific communities.”
While this study sheds light on the public’s attitudes toward sexual assault in the Deep South, it has some limitations. The study only looked at comments on Facebook, which may not fully capture public opinion in this region. The researchers noted that people might self-censor in public forums or delete comments after posting them, which could skew the results. Finally, the study focused exclusively on cases where the victim was assigned female at birth, so it did not explore how rape myths might play out in cases involving male victims.
Given these limitations, the researchers suggested several avenues for future research. One important area is to examine how gender stereotypes about men and women shape the acceptance of rape myths in cases where the victim is male. This would help provide a more comprehensive understanding of how different gender dynamics influence public opinion about sexual violence.
Additionally, future research could explore how race intersects with rape myth acceptance, especially in the Deep South, where racial tensions have historically been high. Although race was not a focus of this study, a few comments implied that the treatment of victims and perpetrators might differ based on their race.
“Reading online comments can be emotionally difficult work,” Deshotels said. “It was at times heartbreaking to see victims being blamed and at other times heartening to see the outpouring of support.”
The researchers hope that their findings can be used to inform community-focused education programs aimed at dismantling rape myths, supporting victims, and holding perpetrators accountable.
The study, “(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01639625.2023.2286262) ‘Ladies I Hope You are in Church Right now’: Exploring Rape Myths from Social Media Comments in the Deep South,” was authored by Taylor Ellis, Sarah Donley, Tina H. Deshotels, and Ashley Anderson.

(https://www.psypost.org/omega-3-fatty-acid-intake-counteracts-symptoms-of-stress-induced-anxiety-and-depression-in-mice/) Omega-3 fatty acid intake counteracts symptoms of stress-induced anxiety and depression in mice
Sep 20th 2024, 08:00

A study on mice found that adding omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to their diets effectively counteracts depressive and anxiety-like behaviors induced by stress. Not only did the supplementation reduce these stress-induced symptoms, but it also lowered anxiety levels in mice that were not exposed to stress. These findings, published in (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352289524000420) Neurobiology of Stress, suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may have protective mental health benefits.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential fats that the body cannot produce, meaning they must be obtained through food. There are three main types of omega-3s: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), found in plant oils, and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), primarily found in fish and seafood. These fats play a key role in maintaining brain function, preserving the integrity of cell membranes, and reducing inflammation throughout the body.
Omega-3s are widely recognized for their cardiovascular benefits, such as lowering blood pressure and reducing the risk of heart disease. They are equally important for mental health. Research indicates that omega-3s may alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety, likely due to their anti-inflammatory properties and their role in maintaining brain health.
Several recent rodent studies have shown that incorporating these fatty acids into the diet can help counteract some of the negative effects of chronic stress, particularly during critical developmental periods. Omega-3s are most abundant in fatty fish like salmon and tuna, as well as in plant sources such as flaxseeds, walnuts, and chia seeds.
Study author Tatyana Strekalova and her colleagues wanted to explore whether exposing young mice to prolonged stress would induce behaviors similar to anxiety and depression in humans, and if supplementing the diet with omega-3 fatty acids would help prevent the development of these symptoms. Chronic stress was induced through exposure to ultrasound frequencies, simulating emotional stress that could lead to depressive-like symptoms. This method is an established way to model stress-induced depression in animals, which is used to better understand how these conditions develop in humans.
The experiments were conducted using 40 C57BL/6 male mice, each one month old. This strain of mice is commonly used in research because of their genetic uniformity and their susceptibility to diet-related conditions, such as obesity and diabetes. They are frequently used in studies on neurobiology, immunology, and cancer, making them ideal for this experiment. The mice were housed individually, with unlimited access to food and water.
The researchers divided the mice into four groups of ten. One group served as a control and received a regular diet without exposure to stress. The second group was subjected to chronic stress in the form of unpredictable ultrasound frequencies for 21 days, without any dietary supplementation. The third group received omega-3 fatty acids in their diet but was not exposed to stress. The fourth group was both exposed to stress and given the omega-3 supplement. The supplement included 0.55 mg/kg/day each of EPA and DHA, matching the recommended dosage of omega-3s for humans, scaled appropriately for mice.
After the 21-day period of stress exposure, the mice underwent several behavioral tests designed to measure symptoms analogous to human depression and anxiety. These tests included the sucrose preference test, which assesses anhedonia (the loss of interest in pleasurable activities), the novel cage test, the dark-light box test, and the open field test, which measure anxiety and exploratory behaviors. Once the behavioral tests were completed, the mice were killed, and their blood and tissues were analyzed to assess the biological effects of stress and omega-3 supplementation.
Mice that were exposed to ultrasound stress but received no dietary supplements showed significant anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. They displayed reduced sucrose consumption, indicating anhedonia, and exhibited less exploratory behavior in the tests. Furthermore, their blood samples revealed elevated levels of corticosterone, a hormone linked to stress responses.
The researchers also detected increased expression of TNF and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) genes in the brain, both of which are markers of inflammation. Inflammation in the brain is associated with various neurological disorders and can exacerbate conditions like depression and anxiety. The enhanced gene expression suggests that chronic stress had triggered an inflammatory response in these mice, leading to changes in their brain function and behavior.
In contrast, the mice that were exposed to stress but received omega-3 supplementation did not show the same degree of behavioral and physiological changes. They continued to drink sucrose, indicating they were less affected by stress-induced anhedonia, and they explored their environment more freely during the tests. Their levels of corticosterone and inflammatory markers, including TNF and IL-1β, were also lower than those in the stressed mice without supplementation.
These findings suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may protect against the harmful effects of chronic stress by reducing inflammation in the brain. Interestingly, even the mice that were not exposed to stress but received omega-3 supplements showed fewer anxiety-like behaviors compared to the control group, highlighting the broad mental health benefits of these fatty acids.
“Chronic omega-3 intake counteracted depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors in a US model of juvenile depression in mice [mice exposed to chronic stress as juveniles using ultrasound]. These effects likely stem from the anti-inflammatory properties of the supplement, suggesting potential therapeutic applications in juvenile depression,” the study authors concluded.
The study demonstrates the protective effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplements in mice exposed to chronic stress. However, it should be emphasized that this study was done on mice, not on humans. While mice and humans share many physiological similarities, there are significant differences between the two species. The effects observed in this study may not necessarily translate directly to human patients, and further research is needed to confirm whether omega-3 supplements would have the same benefits in people.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2024.100646) Omega-3 alleviates behavioral and molecular changes in a mouse model of stress-induced juvenile depression,” was authored by Tatyana Strekalova, Daniel Radford-Smith, Isobel K. Dunstan, Anna Gorlova, Evgeniy Svirin, Elisaveta Sheveleva, Alisa Burova, Sergey Morozov, Aleksey Lyundup, Gregor Berger, Daniel C. Anthony, and Susanne Walitza.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-study-links-brain-network-damage-to-increased-religious-fundamentalism/) New study links brain network damage to increased religious fundamentalism
Sep 20th 2024, 06:00

A new study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests that specific networks in the brain, when damaged, may influence the likelihood of developing religious fundamentalism. By analyzing patients with focal brain lesions, researchers found that damage to a particular network of brain regions—mainly in the right hemisphere—was associated with higher levels of fundamentalist beliefs. This finding provides new insight into the potential neural basis of religious fundamentalism, which has long been studied in psychology but less so in neuroscience.
Religious fundamentalism is a way of thinking and behaving characterized by a rigid adherence to religious doctrines that are seen as absolute and inerrant. It’s been linked to various cognitive traits such as authoritarianism, resistance to doubt, and a lower complexity of thought. While much of the research on religious fundamentalism has focused on social and environmental factors like family upbringing and cultural influence, there has been growing interest in the role of biology. Some studies have suggested that genetic factors or brain function may influence religiosity, but until now, very little research has looked at specific brain networks that could underlie fundamentalist thinking.
The researchers behind this study wanted to address a critical gap in understanding how brain lesions might affect religious beliefs, particularly fundamentalism. Prior research suggested that (https://www.psypost.org/study-uncovers-brain-lesions-increase-religious-fundamentalism/) damage to the prefrontal cortex could increase fundamentalist attitudes, but this work was limited to small sample sizes and focused only on one part of the brain. The authors of the study hypothesized that instead of a single brain region being responsible, religious fundamentalism might arise from damage to a distributed network of connected brain regions.
“My primary interest is and has been mystical experience. But in the process researching the cognitive neuroscience of mystical experience, I came across brain network associations with religious fundamentalism,” study corresponding author (https://www.neuromichael.com/) Michael Ferguson, an instructor in neurology at Harvard Medical School and director of Neurospirituality Research at the Center for Brain Circuit Therapeutics.
To explore whether damage to specific brain networks could influence the likelihood of holding religious fundamentalist beliefs, the researchers used a method called lesion network mapping, which helps identify how different regions of the brain are connected and how damage to one area might disrupt related brain functions. The study involved two large groups of patients with focal brain damage, giving the researchers a unique opportunity to analyze how different types of brain lesions might be linked to religious beliefs.
The first group consisted of 106 male Vietnam War veterans who had sustained traumatic brain injuries during combat. These men, now aged between 53 and 75, were part of a long-term study conducted at the National Institutes of Health. The second group included 84 patients from rural Iowa who had experienced brain injuries from various causes, such as strokes, surgical resections, or traumatic head injuries. This second group was more diverse in terms of gender and had a broader range of injury causes.
Both groups completed a scale designed to measure religious fundamentalism, which asked participants to respond to statements reflecting rigid and inerrant religious beliefs, such as the view that there is only one true religion or that certain religious teachings are absolutely correct and unchangeable.
For each participant, the researchers mapped the precise locations of their brain lesions using advanced imaging techniques like computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These scans were then analyzed using lesion network mapping to see how damage to certain brain areas was connected to changes in religious fundamentalism scores. The researchers also compared the brain lesion data to a larger database of lesions associated with various neuropsychiatric and behavioral conditions, which helped them understand how the brain regions linked to religious fundamentalism overlap with those involved in other psychological traits.
The researchers found that damage to certain areas of the brain, particularly in the right hemisphere, was associated with higher scores on the religious fundamentalism scale. Specifically, lesions affecting the right superior orbital frontal cortex, right middle frontal gyrus, right inferior parietal lobe, and the left cerebellum were linked to increased religious fundamentalism. In contrast, damage to regions such as the left paracentral lobule and the right cerebellum was associated with lower scores on the fundamentalism scale.
“The strength and reproducibility of the signal between psychological self-report measures of religious fundamentalism and the functional networks we identified in the brain surprised me,” Ferguson told PsyPost. “It increases confidence in the results.”
Interestingly, the researchers noted that the brain regions identified in this study are part of a broader network connected to cognitive functions like reasoning, belief formation, and moral decision-making. These areas are also associated with conditions like pathological confabulation—a disorder where individuals create false memories or beliefs without the intent to deceive. Confabulation is often linked to cognitive rigidity and difficulty in revising beliefs, characteristics that are also found in individuals with high levels of religious fundamentalism.
The researchers also found a spatial overlap between brain lesions associated with criminal behavior and this fundamentalism network, which aligns with previous research suggesting that extreme religious beliefs may be linked to hostility and aggression toward outgroups.
“It’s sobering, but one of the takeaway findings is the shared neuroanatomy between religious fundamentalism, confabulations, and criminal behavior,” Ferguson said. “It refocuses important questions about how and why these aspects of human behavior may be observed to relate to each other.”
The researchers emphasize that damage to this brain network does not guarantee that a person will develop fundamentalist beliefs, nor does it imply that individuals with strong religious convictions have brain damage. Instead, the findings point to the possibility that certain brain networks influence how people process beliefs and how flexible or rigid their thinking becomes, especially in the context of religion.
“A major caveat is that these results do not indicate that people with strong religious beliefs confabulate or that individuals high in religious fundamentalism commit crimes,” Ferguson explained. “Rather, our data may help us understand the style of cognitive or emotional processing that increase or decrease the probability of holding fundamentalism attitudes.”
The authors suggest that future research should explore how this brain network influences religious fundamentalism in more diverse populations, including people from non-Christian religious traditions or from different cultural backgrounds. It would also be valuable to study patients both before and after brain injuries to better understand how changes in the brain might affect religious beliefs over time. Additionally, research could investigate how this brain network relates to other types of belief systems, such as political ideologies or moral convictions, to see if similar patterns of cognitive rigidity or reduced skepticism emerge in these contexts.
“The personal beliefs of the authors span a broad continuum from adherents of religious faiths through agnosticism to atheism,” Ferguson noted. “We approach the weighty subject matter of this research as earnest seekers of scientific data and encourage readers to receive our results in the spirit of open-minded empirical inquiry driven by scientific curiosity and without prejudice or malice to any group or faith.”
The study, “(https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2322399121) A neural network for religious fundamentalism derived from patients with brain lesions,” was authored by Michael A. Ferguson, Erik W. Asp, Isaiah Kletenik , Daniel Tranel, Aaron D. Boes, Jenae M. Nelson, Frederic L. W. V. J. Schaper, Shan Siddiqi, Joseph I. Turner, J. Seth Anderson, Jared A. Nielsen, James R. Bateman, Jordan Grafman, and Michael D. Fox.

(https://www.psypost.org/elite-athletes-are-generally-smarter-than-us-cognitive-sciences-can-explain-why/) Elite athletes are generally smarter than us – cognitive sciences can explain why
Sep 19th 2024, 16:30

The year was 1920. It was George “Babe” Ruth’s first season playing for the New York Yankees.
During that season, he scored an amazing 54 home runs. He alone scored more home runs than any team.
However, “The Bambino,” as he was nicknamed, was far from an example of athletic prowess. He was chubby, did not like to practice and was constantly seen at parties drinking and gambling.
So, how could he achieve such greatness on the baseball field?
To answer this question, a prominent sportswriter from the New York Times, Hugh Fullerton, knocked on the door of the Columbia University psychology lab where two graduate researchers, Albert Johanson and Joseph Holmes, were prompted to answer.
Fullerton’s enquiry was simple: if Ruth’s achievements could not be explained by physical abilities, then what other factors might be involved?
It was no surprise when the researchers discovered Ruth scored higher than the average population in every psychological test he did.
Ruth’s testing results formed the basis of an article by Fullerton in Popular Science Monthly titled: “(https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-science_1921-10_99_4/mode/2up) Why Babe Ruth is greatest home-run hitter”.
These findings changed the popular perspective on sport performance, suggesting physical attributes weren’t the only reason athletes were able to excel – mental skills were finally on centre stage.
The evolution of sport psychology
Ruth outperformed normal people in attention, memory and cognitive tasks.
It took almost a century for sport scientists to find out whether those high-level skills were a common trait for elite athletes or if Ruth was just a genius.
In an exploratory (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-017-9813-9) meta-analysis published in 2018, focusing on athletes only, my colleagues and I found athletes recruited brain areas involved with attention, memory and motor control when making sport-related decisions.
Then, in 2022, (https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2022.2084764) a review by Nicole Logan and colleagues from Northeastern University in the United States gathered 41 studies comparing professional athletes and normal controls (people like us).
Data from 5,339 participants (including 2267 athletes) was meta-analysed. The results showed significantly higher scores in attention and decision-making among professional athletes compared to normal people.
So athletes generally outperform us in cognitive tasks – but why?
It was the emergence of cognitive neuroscience that allowed scientists to map neural networks involved in sport imagery (such as athletes’ abilities to reproduce sport-related situations in their minds) and athletes’ decision-making regarding in-game situations.

 
Elite athlete are smarter than amateur athletes as well
Decision-making is a human skill. The more you practice, the better you get.
But good decision-makers such as elite athletes rely on other cognitive skills to simulate in their minds the potential outcomes of any given situation.
Here is an example – imagine a rugby league match.
A halfback is starting a play with his team close to the try line. He has several teammates to pass the ball to but he decides to tuck the ball under his arm and sprint to score a try – he had seen open space in the opponent’s defensive line.
In a fraction of a second, he had to make a decision based on the information he had available. Using imagery, he had to consider every other player’s position in the field, calculating the best route for each possible pass or run he could make.
It requires high levels of attention to visually scan the field, stop any distraction from clouding thoughts, memory to hold and retrieve information while processing all alternatives, and creativity to imagine the same play from different angles.
These three skills – attention, memory and creativity – have technical names: inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility, respectively.
They are the three core executive functions used by the brain to execute complex tasks.
The most groundbreaking study about the role of executive functions in sport performance came out in 2012.
Torbjörn Vestberg and colleagues from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden compared the three core executive functions of elite soccer players from the first division with their counterparts from the fourth division (usually only semi-professional athletes).
The higher division outperformed the lower division players (https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0034731) in all executive functions tasks.
Similar results were found in other studies through the past decade, including (https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-023-01464-0) one from my colleagues and I in 2023, which compared female soccer and futsal players with their amateur counterparts.
We found elite athletes outperform regular people in decision-making and executive functioning.
Athletes outsmart us for a reason: practice
Elite athletes are highly specialised decision-makers because they practice it every day.
They outperform normal people in (https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2022.2084764) cognitive flexibility and inhibition, which might lead to smarter decisions on and off court.
However, the scientific literature still lacks evidence on the other core executive function, the working memory. In my current research I am trying to fill this gap.
Being creative and finding better solutions to overcome an opponent is what sport is about, whereas many normal people like us struggle when facing large amounts of information at the same time.
Practice, and a bit of biological disposition, makes most elite athletes smarter than us.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/elite-athletes-are-generally-smarter-than-us-cognitive-sciences-can-explain-why-234665) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/big-five-traits-shape-self-esteem-development-in-adolescence/) Big Five traits shape self-esteem development in adolescence
Sep 19th 2024, 14:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000518) Journal of Personality & Social Psychology suggests that personality traits often drive changes in self-esteem during adolescence.
Adolescence is pivotal for the development of personality traits and self-esteem, both linked to outcomes such as academic success and well-being. While traits like extraversion and conscientiousness tend to boost self-esteem, and neuroticism lowers it, less is known about how these traits and self-esteem influence each other over time. Kristina Bien and colleagues sought to address this gap by investigating whether changes in personality traits predict changes in self-esteem during adolescence, and vice versa.
Previous research largely examined the link between personality traits and self-esteem cross-sectionally, offering snapshots rather than insight into how they evolve over time. Given that adolescence is marked by rapid social, cognitive, and emotional development, understanding how personality and self-esteem interact longitudinally is important.
The study included German adolescents aged 16 to 22, who were predominantly female (72%) and on the academic track. Data were collected over three measurement points over the course of a year, with intervals between one and six months.
At each time point, the participants completed self-report questionnaires that assessed their personality traits and self-esteem. Personality traits were assessed using the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2), with each trait measured through 12 items. Self-esteem was assessed using a four-item version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Both measures used a 7-point scale.
In addition to self-reports, acquaintance-reports—input from people close to the participants—were collected in two of the studies to provide an external perspective on the adolescents’ personality traits and self-esteem. The researchers also accounted for variables such as gender, age, and study source to ensure results were reflective of genuine developmental trends rather than external factors.
The study found that rank-order stability—the consistency with which individual differences in traits and self-esteem were maintained—remained high over the year, meaning adolescents tended to maintain their relative standing compared to their peers.
The relationship between specific traits and self-esteem showed nuanced patterns. Extraversion and openness demonstrated reciprocal relationships with self-esteem, where increases in these traits led to higher self-esteem and vice versa. Neuroticism had a particularly strong one-way influence on self-esteem, with higher levels leading to significant decreases in self-esteem over time, but not the reverse.
Agreeableness and conscientiousness only influenced self-esteem, with changes in these traits predicting increases in self-esteem, but self-esteem changes did not affect these traits. Importantly, most of the cross-effects observed in the study were strongest within the first two months after initial changes occurred, and they generally faded after two months.
Interestingly, the acquaintance-reports corroborated the self-reports but suggested that personality changes, especially in neuroticism, exerted even stronger effects on self-esteem when viewed from the perspective of others. These externally observed effects also tended to last longer than those reported by the participants themselves.
These findings underscore a complex relationship between personality traits and self-esteem during adolescence, with neuroticism playing a particularly strong role in shaping self-esteem.
A key limitation is the sample, which mainly consisted of German adolescents from the academic track, making it difficult to generalize the findings to more diverse populations.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000518) Growing Up to Be Mature and Confident? The Longitudinal Interplay Between the Big Five and Self-Esteem in Adolescence”, was authored by Kristina Bien, Jenny Wagner, and Naemi D. Brandt.

(https://www.psypost.org/eeg-scans-reveal-early-signs-of-ptsd-development-in-sexual-assault-survivors/) EEG scans reveal early signs of PTSD development in sexual assault survivors
Sep 19th 2024, 14:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.04.009) Journal of Psychiatric Research has uncovered differences in brain activity patterns that could predict which women may develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following sexual assault. By analyzing brain function soon after the trauma using electroencephalography (EEG), researchers found distinct connectivity patterns that emerged between those who later developed PTSD and those who did not. This discovery could lead to more targeted interventions to prevent the disorder from taking hold.
Post-traumatic stress disorder affects many individuals who have experienced trauma, but not everyone who undergoes a traumatic event will develop the disorder. Identifying those at risk for PTSD early on could dramatically improve treatment outcomes. Sexual assault survivors are particularly vulnerable to PTSD, with about half of all survivors developing the condition in their lifetime. Yet the precise neurobiological changes that contribute to the development of PTSD remain poorly understood.
This study focused on women who had recently experienced sexual assault, a group that is disproportionately affected by PTSD. The goal was to explore whether differences in brain connectivity soon after the trauma could predict who would later develop PTSD. The researchers hoped that by identifying these early indicators, interventions could be delivered more quickly to those most at risk.
The study included 33 women who had recently experienced sexual assault. These women were recruited from a sexual assault referral center within a month of the incident. All participants underwent EEG testing, which measures electrical activity in the brain, while in a resting state. This allowed the researchers to assess the brain’s functional connectivity—how different parts of the brain communicate with each other—without any external tasks or stimuli.
The women were then followed up three months after the initial trauma. At this point, a clinical interview was conducted to determine whether they had developed PTSD. Of the 33 participants, 12 were diagnosed with PTSD, while 14 did not meet the full criteria for the disorder. Seven participants were lost to follow-up and could not be included in the final analysis.
To compare the brain activity of these women, the researchers also included two control groups: one group of 25 women diagnosed with major depressive disorder, and another group of 25 healthy women with no history of trauma or psychiatric conditions.
The EEG data were analyzed to look for patterns in functional connectivity within specific regions of the brain, particularly those involved in emotional regulation and memory, such as the default mode network (DMN). This network is known to play a key role in how the brain processes internal thoughts and emotions, and previous research has suggested that its functioning might be altered in people with PTSD.
The results showed clear differences in brain connectivity between women who developed PTSD and those who did not. Specifically, those who went on to develop PTSD had reduced connectivity in certain regions of the brain shortly after the trauma. These differences were most pronounced in the beta frequency bands, which are associated with higher-level cognitive functions and emotional regulation.
Women who developed PTSD showed decreased functional connectivity in areas of the brain involved in memory and emotion processing, including the entorhinal cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus. These regions are known to be critical for processing traumatic memories and emotional responses, suggesting that disruptions in their connectivity may contribute to the development of PTSD.
Interestingly, the women who did not develop PTSD also showed some changes in brain activity. However, these changes were different from those observed in the PTSD group. For instance, they exhibited reduced connectivity in the frontal regions of the brain, which are associated with executive functioning and decision-making. This suggests that different brain processes may be involved in how individuals cope with trauma, with some patterns possibly helping to protect against the development of PTSD.
One of the most significant strengths of this study is its prospective design, which sets it apart from many other PTSD studies. By tracking brain activity in sexual assault survivors within a month of the trauma and then following up three months later, the researchers were able to observe how early neurobiological changes are linked to the later development of PTSD. This design offers a clearer view of causality, as it allows researchers to identify patterns in brain activity that emerge before PTSD is diagnosed, rather than relying on retrospective data from individuals who already have PTSD.
But it is important to note that EEG is only one tool for measuring brain activity, and it has certain limitations compared to other imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While EEG offers excellent temporal resolution, meaning it can capture very fast changes in brain activity, it has lower spatial resolution, making it harder to pinpoint the exact location of brain activity. Combining EEG with other imaging techniques could provide a more detailed picture of the brain’s response to trauma.
In addition, the sample size was relatively small, with only 33 women in the study and seven of them lost to follow-up. This makes it difficult to generalize the findings to all sexual assault survivors. Future studies with larger and more diverse samples will be needed to confirm these results.
“In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of early assessment and interventions for sexual assault survivors who are at risk of developing PTSD,” the researchers wrote. “However, given the limitations mentioned above, it is necessary to replicate the findings in larger samples, including men and individuals from different cultural and geographic backgrounds, and to perform follow-up assessments to fully understand the longitudinal changes in brain function in PTSD patients. Further research is also needed to identify the most effective treatments for PTSD and to understand the underlying mechanisms of these treatments.”
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002239562400205X) A prospective study on EEG default mode network associated with subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder following sexual assault,” was authored by Su Mi Park, Jun-Young Lee, Jung-Seok Choi, and Hee Yeon Jung.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-links-near-death-experiences-to-vivid-dream-phenomena-like-lucid-and-precognitive-dreams/) Study links near-death experiences to vivid dream phenomena like lucid and precognitive dreams
Sep 19th 2024, 12:00

A recent study published in the journal (https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2025-09084-001.html) Dreaming sheds new light on the relationship between near-death experiences and dreaming. The research found that individuals who have had a near-death experience (NDE) report more frequent and vivid dreams, including lucid dreaming, out-of-body experiences, and even precognitive dreams, compared to those who have not come close to death.
Near-death experiences are rare but profoundly impactful events, often described as moments of heightened awareness and sensory perception that occur when a person is close to death. While these experiences are usually brief, they can leave a lasting mark on individuals, sometimes sparking dramatic shifts in attitudes, beliefs, and even physiological traits. Researchers have been interested in NDEs not only because they offer insight into how the brain functions under extreme conditions but also because they might hold clues to understanding the broader nature of human consciousness.
One area that remains underexplored is the potential relationship between NDEs and dream states. Previous studies have hinted at unusual dream phenomena among those who have had NDEs, such as increased dream vividness and more frequent lucid dreams. However, few studies have systematically compared the dream experiences of NDE survivors with those who have not come close to death.
“I have always been interested in unusual states of consciousness from a very young age, having experienced a number of exceptional or extended conscious states myself,” said study author Nicole Lindsay, a senior psychology lecturer at Massey University. “Near-death experiences (NDEs) provide insight into how consciousness operates under extreme conditions, including potentially, in the absence of a functioning physical body. What could be more fascinating than that! I completed a PhD in this area in 2018 and have continued to research in this area ever since.”
The study included three groups of participants: 138 people who had experienced an NDE, 45 individuals who had been through a life-threatening event but did not report having an NDE, and 129 participants who had never come close to death. All participants were asked to complete a detailed online questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions about their dream experiences, trauma symptoms, and demographic information.
Dream-related questions were drawn from a well-known psychological tool called the Mannheim Dream Questionnaire, which assesses various aspects of dreaming, such as dream recall frequency, emotional intensity, and experiences of nightmares or lucid dreams. Additional questions specifically asked participants about more unusual dream experiences, including out-of-body experiences and precognitive dreams (dreams in which the individual seemingly gains knowledge of future events). Trauma symptoms were measured using the Impact of Event Scale, a widely used tool that assesses how much individuals are affected by traumatic events, looking at symptoms such as intrusive thoughts and hyperarousal.
The researchers found significant differences in the dream experiences reported by the NDE group compared to the other two groups. Participants who had experienced an NDE reported more frequent and vivid dreams, and they were more likely to recall their dreams regularly. They also described more emotionally intense dreams, though the emotional tone of these dreams was generally more positive than that reported by the other participants.
One of the most striking findings was the increased frequency of lucid dreams, out-of-body experiences during sleep, and precognitive dreams in the NDE group. Lucid dreams, where individuals are aware they are dreaming and can sometimes control the dream, were much more common among those who had an NDE. Out-of-body experiences during sleep, in which individuals feel as though their consciousness has separated from their physical body, were also more frequent in the NDE group. Finally, NDE survivors reported more precognitive dreams, in which they seemed to have knowledge of future events.
Interestingly, while nightmares were more common among those who had experienced an NDE, these participants still reported a more positive overall emotional tone in their dreams compared to the control group. This suggests that while NDE survivors may experience disturbing dreams, their dream life as a whole may not be as negatively affected as one might expect.
“Both the phenomenology and after effects of near-death experiences have been documented for quite some time,” Lindsay told PsyPost. “However, we know less about the physiological changes that might occur after NDEs. Although anecdotally many people who have NDEs describe unusual dream experiences occurring post-NDE, including an increased frequency of psi (psychic or paranormal) experiences like precognitive dreaming or out-of-body experiences, this research provides a measure of empirical support for these claims. It’s widely acknowledged that alterations to sleep and dreaming can occur after traumatic events like life-threatening episodes, but we found these atypical dream states were related to NDE phenomenology rather than post-traumatic stress.”
When the researchers examined the potential reasons for these differences, they found that the intensity of the NDE—how deep or transformative the experience was—was closely linked to the frequency of lucid dreams, precognitive dreams, and out-of-body experiences. In contrast, trauma symptoms, such as those associated with post-traumatic stress, were more strongly related to the occurrence of nightmares and sleep disturbances.
“We conducted some follow-up interviews with participants about their dream experiences and they were so intriguing that we decided to write up these findings independently,” Lindsay said. “One of the more unexpected findings was that elements of the NDE, particularly communication or contact with entities or beings encountered during the NDE, tend to transition into dream states afterwards.
“I remember one participant from my PhD studies stated ‘it’s like I still have one foot on the other side’ and that pretty much sums it up. Dream states seem to bridge that gap between the state experienced during the NDE, and everyday waking reality.”
“Another surprising and quite bizarre finding was that, following the NDE, some people appear to be able to tune into another’s consciousness whilst dreaming, either in the past, present or future,” Lindsay added. “Sometimes these experiences were quite mundane, like walking through a house their friend was thinking of buying or tasting what another person was eating for lunch. It was as though they were experiencing it from the other person’s perspective. These dream experiences were often very vivid, indistinguishable from reality and could be quite confusing for the experiencer. Some people also become very adept lucid dreamers and have impressive control over their dream states.”
Although this study offers intriguing insights into the relationship between NDEs and dream experiences, it is not without limitations. One of the main challenges in studying NDEs is that they cannot be induced under controlled conditions. As a result, researchers must rely on retrospective self-reports.
“NDEs are obviously quite difficult to study under controlled conditions,” Lindsay noted. “We can’t deliberately induce NDEs, they tend happen spontaneously and it’s impossible to predict when one will occur. We are therefore typically reliant on retrospective self-reporting which can introduce issues such as social desirability, self-enhancement or memory biases.”
“Although most people who have NDEs claim that psychophysical changes only occur after the NDE, we can’t be certain about causal direction. It may be that a specific neurological or personality configuration may increase the likelihood of experiencing NDEs as well as other unusual conscious states such as lucid dreaming, out-of-body experiences and precognitive dreams, rather the NDE actually causing these exceptional dream experiences.”
The study’s authors are eager to pursue more research in this area, particularly to investigate the potential brain changes that might occur following an NDE.
“I am very interested in exploring the neurological changes that seem to occur following NDEs,” Lindsay said. “I noticed that many of the dream experiences people reported, such as increased lucid dreaming, are very similar to experiences described by long-term meditators and other practitioners of extended states of consciousness. I’m really keen to utilize brain imaging to determine whether neurostructural changes occur and whether they match those observed in experienced meditators. I’m also extremely interested in the psi abilities that people often report following NDEs and are hoping to pursue further research in that area.”
The study, “(https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/drm0000278) Trauma or Transcendence? The Relationship Between Near-Death Experiences and Dreaming,” was authored by Nicole Lindsay, Natasha Tassell-Matamua, Laura O’Sullivan, and Rosemary Gibson.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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