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(https://www.psypost.org/attractive-faces-influence-fairness-decisions-reducing-negative-reactions-to-unfair-proposals/) Attractive faces influence fairness decisions, reducing negative reactions to unfair proposals
Sep 16th 2024, 10:00

According to a new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108809) Biological Psychology, facial attractiveness and positive personality traits independently reduce negative responses to unfair offers in economic decision-making.
In social interactions, both facial attractiveness and perceived personality traits can significantly influence decision-making. Previous research suggests that attractive individuals are often judged more favorably and perceived as more trustworthy and competent. Similarly, individuals with positive personality traits are generally perceived more favorably in social and economic contexts. However, the combined effects of facial attractiveness and personality traits on decision-making, particularly in economic games like the Ultimatum Game (UG), have not been thoroughly examined.
The Ultimatum Game is a standard method used in psychology to study fairness and decision-making, where one player (the proposer) suggests a division of money and the other player (the responder) chooses to accept or reject the offer. Tongjie Li and colleagues examined how facial attractiveness and alleged personality traits of proposers affect the acceptance of fair and unfair offers in the UG. Fair offers involve equal or near-equal splits (e.g., 5/5 or 4/6), while unfair offers are heavily skewed in favor of the proposer (e.g., 2/8 or 1/9).
The study involved 30 female students from Liaoning Normal University in China. Participants were informed that they would receive compensation based on their decisions, with actual payments standardized across participants to ensure consistent motivation. The experiment presented participants with 80 male face images (rated previously for attractiveness) and 80 personality trait words (previously rated for valence).
Each trial began with a fixation cross, followed by a composite image of a face paired with a personality trait word, and then a proposed allocation of money. Participants decided whether to accept or reject the offer, with combinations of high or low facial attractiveness, positive or negative personality traits, and fair or unfair monetary splits.
Electroencephalography (EEG), which measures electrical activity in the brain, was used to capture event-related potentials (ERPs), which are specific brain responses linked to cognitive and emotional processing during decision-making. The researchers focused on key ERPs like the P2, feedback-related negativity (FRN), and P300 components.
Consistent with established norms of fairness in decision-making, the results showed that participants were more likely to accept fair offers than unfair ones. However, acceptance rates were also significantly higher for offers from proposers with high facial attractiveness or positive personality traits, suggesting that these factors biased decision-making in favor of more favorable outcomes, even when offers were objectively unfair.
EEG data revealed that negative personality traits elicited larger P2 components, indicating heightened attentional processing of negative information. High-attractive faces triggered larger late positive components (LPC), reflecting greater cognitive processing associated with the perceived reward value of attractive faces.
Additionally, unfair offers generally produced larger FRN amplitudes, a neural marker of negative emotional response to perceived unfairness. However, this FRN response was attenuated when the proposer was either highly attractive or associated with positive personality traits, suggesting these attributes can mitigate negative reactions to unfair offers. The P300 component, associated with attentional and motivational significance, was larger for fair offers and for proposers with positive personality traits.
Overall, this study demonstrates that facial attractiveness and personality traits independently influence both the behavioral and neural responses to fairness in economic decision-making.
One limitation noted by the authors is the exclusive use of female participants and male face stimuli, which may limit the generalizability of the findings across genders and sexual orientations.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108809) The impact of facial attractiveness and alleged personality traits on fairness decisions in the ultimatum game: Evidence from ERPs,” was authored by Tongjie Li, Zhiyong Liang, Yan Yuan, Werner Sommer, and Weijun Li.

(https://www.psypost.org/the-disturbing-impact-of-exposure-to-8-minutes-of-tiktok-videos-revealed-in-new-study/) The disturbing impact of exposure to 8 minutes of TikTok videos revealed in new study
Sep 16th 2024, 08:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307597) PLOS One highlights the potential psychological risks associated with exposure to TikTok content, particularly videos that promote disordered eating and unhealthy body ideals. The research shows that women who viewed pro-anorexia (pro-ana) content on the platform experienced a significant drop in body image satisfaction and were more likely to internalize societal beauty standards. Even women exposed to seemingly neutral TikTok videos reported reduced body image satisfaction, suggesting that exposure to social media platforms like TikTok can have a broader impact on self-perception, regardless of the specific content consumed.
In recent years, TikTok has become one of the most popular social media platforms globally, particularly among teenagers and young adults. While social media platforms have long been associated with body image issues, TikTok’s unique algorithm—which personalizes content based on user interaction—may intensify the effects of harmful content.
Pro-anorexia communities on social media, often referred to as “pro-ana,” explicitly promote unhealthy behaviors such as extreme dieting and excessive exercise, encouraging viewers to engage in disordered eating. Although TikTok has policies in place to regulate such content, the platform’s algorithm can still inadvertently expose users to harmful videos, especially when users interact with fitness or weight loss-related content.
“I have a long-standing interest in wellness culture, which led me to consider the normalisation of disordered eating culture beyond clinical contexts. So much of the harmful body-related messaging people are exposed to online is hiding in plain sight,” explained study author (https://www.linkedin.com/in/rachel-hogg-871b72123/) Rachel Hogg, a senior lecturer in psychology at Charles Sturt University.
“Some of this content is explicitly disordered, but a lot of it is presented as health consciousness and comes in the form of restricted diets, microbiome cleanses, and an intense focus on exercise and self-discipline. Such practices are often accepted and rewarded as self-improvement, allowing content creators to reconfigure body distress as body transformation. All forms of harmful body-related content deserve consideration, but I am especially interested in the implicitly disordered content that circulates freely online and is supported and often celebrated by mainstream culture.”
The study involved 273 women aged 18 to 28, most of whom were TikTok users in Australia. Participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Those in the experimental group were exposed to a series of TikTok videos for approximately 8 minutes promoting disordered eating behaviors, including explicit pro-ana content. These videos featured young women restricting food intake, humor about disordered eating, and weight loss tips, such as using ice cubes to curb hunger. The control group, on the other hand, viewed neutral content, such as videos about nature, animals, and cooking.
To assess the psychological effects of the videos, the researchers measured body image satisfaction and the internalization of societal beauty standards both before and after the participants watched the TikTok videos. Body image satisfaction was measured using the Body Image States Scale (BISS), while the internalization of beauty standards was evaluated with the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-4). In addition, participants completed the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), which screens for disordered eating behaviors, and the ORTO-15, a tool designed to assess orthorexic tendencies (an unhealthy obsession with eating “clean” or “pure” foods).
After viewing the videos, participants were asked to complete the same body image and internalization surveys to assess whether their perceptions had changed as a result of the exposure. The researchers also analyzed participants’ daily TikTok use to determine whether higher levels of use correlated with more disordered eating behaviors.
The results confirmed that exposure to pro-anorexia TikTok content had a noticeable impact on women’s body image and internalization of beauty standards. Women in the experimental group, who watched the disordered eating content, reported a decrease in body image satisfaction compared to those in the control group. Their scores on the SATAQ-4, which measures the internalization of societal appearance ideals, also increased after viewing the pro-ana content, indicating that the videos led them to adopt more rigid views on societal beauty standards.
“I was surprised that the ‘dosage rate’ of less than 10 minutes watching disordered TikTok content was enough to have an effect,” Hogg told PsyPost. “We were aware in the lead-up to data collection that less than ten minutes of exposure may not be enough to elicit an effect, even if the content is having an effect, keeping in mind that body image satisfaction and internalisation of beauty standards are influenced by factors other than just social media content. Because disordered eating content is so prevalent on TikTok, there was also the possibility that TikTok users in our study would be somewhat inoculated its effect but that certainly was not the case.”
“The (https://wallaroomedia.com/blog/social-media/tiktok-statistics/) average TikTok user spends around 1.5 hours a day on the platform, and in our research, around 30% of the female participants in our study were spending somewhere between 2-5 hours per day on the platform, so the ‘dosage rate’ of 7-8 minutes of disordered content to which participants in the experimental group were exposed is much lower than the exposure they are likely experiencing on a regular basis.”
Interestingly, women in the control group also experienced a drop in body image satisfaction, even though the videos they watched did not focus on body appearance or weight. This suggests that the mere act of viewing TikTok videos, regardless of the specific content, may encourage users to engage in social comparison, potentially lowering their satisfaction with their own bodies.
The study also examined the relationship between TikTok use and disordered eating behaviors. Women who reported spending two or more hours on TikTok each day had higher scores on the EAT-26, suggesting that they were more likely to exhibit disordered eating behaviors. However, these findings did not reach statistical significance, meaning that further research is needed to confirm whether time spent on TikTok directly correlates with eating disorder risk.
Still, participants in the high and extreme TikTok usage categories scored just below the clinical threshold for eating disorder symptoms, raising concerns about the potential for TikTok to influence disordered eating behaviors in the long term.
Hogg outlined two main takeaways from the findings: “First, on TikTok, the algorithm has more influence on what you see online than you do – even if you don’t search for disordered eating or exercise content, it is likely such content will find its way into your FYP, especially if you are a young female user and even if you search for anti-anorexia or body positivity content. Second, limiting time on social media apps like TikTok is often recommended as a way of preventing social media from negatively impacting you, but our findings suggest limited time online doesn’t necessarily mean you will experience minimal psychological harm.”
The study highlights the potential dangers of TikTok content on body image satisfaction and the internalization of societal beauty standards. But as with all research, there are some limitations.
“We excluded anyone with a past or current eating disorder diagnosis from participating in the study, so our findings should not be applied to clinical populations,” Hogg noted. “We also saw a decrease in body image satisfaction from pre- to post-test for the control group as well as the experimental group. It may also be that viewing the bodies of others, even when not in an eating- or exercise-related context, may have a negative impact on body image, as some of the content the control group were exposed to included footage of human bodies. Alternately, it may be that completing a body image satisfaction survey twice within a relatively short time-period may negatively influence how young women feel and think about their bodies.”
Additionally, the study’s experimental design only assessed the short-term impact of TikTok content, measuring changes in body image and beauty standard internalization immediately after participants watched the videos. Longitudinal studies that follow participants over an extended period are needed to determine the long-term psychological effects of TikTok use.
“One line of future research is to examine the nature of the relationship between psychological harm and the length of disordered content exposure, extending beyond the short exposure period we used in this research,” Hogg explained. “The relationship between exposure and negative psychological effects may not be linear in nature, and future research is needed to explore this. I would also like to compare the effects of explicit (pro-ana) and implicit (“clean eating”, fitspiration, #GymTok, #FoodTok, etc) content in two separate experimental trials to tease apart the impact of disordered content across the spectrum.”
“I’m also interested in exploring the beliefs and experiences of content creators – these individuals are often perpetuating harm, but they are also victims of a culture that rewards a rigid adherence to cultural beauty standards, so there are lots of nuances to consider, especially in the case of young content creators and little research has addressed this.”
“Finally, there is one statistically non-significant but clinically interesting finding from our study that lives rent free in my mind,” Hogg continued. “That is, that participants who reported high (2-3 hours per day) and extreme (3+ hours a day) rates of TikTok use averaged scores just below the cut-off for clinical psychopathology on a scale of eating disorder symptoms, suggesting that more than two hours a day of exposure to TikTok content may be linked to clinically significant disordered eating.”
“Considering we excluded those with eating disorder diagnoses from participating in our study, this data suggests that many people without clinical diagnoses are not far from the clinical threshold that would lead a clinician to investigate for an eating disorder. This doesn’t surprise me, but it does concern me, and I think more research is needed to understand where the boundary exists between clinical and sub-clinical symptoms of disordered eating.”
While the study highlights the negative effects of TikTok’s algorithm in promoting disordered content, it also suggests the need for broader regulation of social media platforms. As the researchers note, TikTok’s business model prioritizes user engagement and time spent on the platform, often at the expense of users’ mental health.
“One question I am often asked is ‘what can young women do to keep themselves safe online?’ Certainly there is a place for online safety and media literacy training for individual users, but safety is not going to come from further regulation of the behavior of young women,” Hogg said. “The current economic model of social media is based on keeping people on an app for as long as possible – the profit margins of big tech companies depend on their ability to co-opt our reward systems and provide us with the intermittent reinforcement and the resulting dopamine hits.”
“The harmful kind of exercise-, body-, and diet-related content we have been talking about is financially valuable to big tech companies. And in our research, 64% of participants had seen disordered eating content on their For You page, higher than any other kind of negative content. The only way I can see change really taking place is when wellbeing rather than addiction is the focus of social media companies, and this will not come without government regulation. There are many reasons to be concerned and many reasons for governments to act, but one key social and economic reason is as follows; eating disorders have the highest fatality rate of any mental health diagnosis.”
The study, “(https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307597) #ForYou? the impact of pro-ana TikTok content on body image dissatisfaction and internalisation of societal beauty standards,” was authored by Madison R. Blackburn and Rachel C. Hogg.

(https://www.psypost.org/self-tuning-brain-implants-reduce-parkinsons-symptoms-by-50-in-new-study/) Self-tuning brain implants reduce Parkinson’s symptoms by 50% in new study
Sep 16th 2024, 06:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03196-z) Nature Medicine has provided promising evidence that a new form of deep brain stimulation, known as adaptive deep brain stimulation (adaptive DBS), could improve the management of Parkinson’s disease symptoms. Unlike traditional methods, this approach adjusts the level of electrical stimulation in real time based on brain activity, leading to better symptom control and potentially fewer side effects. The study, funded by the National Institutes of Health, suggests that adaptive DBS may offer more tailored treatment for people with Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder that affects movement, leading to symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with balance and coordination. Current treatments include medications that aim to increase dopamine levels in the brain, as well as a well-established surgical option called deep brain stimulation (DBS). Traditional DBS involves implanting electrodes into specific areas of the brain to deliver constant electrical stimulation, which can help alleviate motor symptoms. However, the continuous nature of this stimulation can sometimes lead to overstimulation, causing unwanted side effects like involuntary movements.
The limitations of traditional DBS arise from the fact that the brain’s needs change over time. The severity of Parkinson’s symptoms can fluctuate throughout the day, depending on factors like medication levels or activity, but standard DBS systems cannot adapt to these fluctuations. This means that patients may experience periods of under-stimulation or over-stimulation. Recognizing this issue, the researchers sought to develop a more flexible system that could dynamically adjust stimulation based on real-time brain activity, thus addressing the varying needs of the brain throughout the day.
“We were interested in this topic because Parkinson’s disease is a common neurological disorder—it’s the second most common neurodegenerative disease globally, and with an aging population, cases are expected to rise,” explained study author (https://oehrnlab.ucdavis.edu/) Carina R. Oehrn, an assistant professor of neurological surgery at the University of California, Davis. “While DBS is effective for treating motor symptoms, it doesn’t always work perfectly for everyone. Even with traditional DBS, patients can still experience symptoms breaking through or side effects during the day.”
“The issue with conventional DBS is that it provides a constant level of stimulation, even though Parkinson’s symptoms fluctuate, especially with medication changes. This can lead to periods of either too little or too much stimulation. For instance, too little stimulation can cause slowness or stiffness, while too much can result in erratic movements. So, traditional, fixed-level DBS might not be ideal for patients whose symptoms vary throughout the day.”
“This got us thinking about how we could create adaptive DBS systems that adjust in real time to meet a patient’s needs, offering more effective and personalized symptom management,” Oehrn said.
The study was designed as a small feasibility trial to test whether adaptive DBS could better control Parkinson’s symptoms than traditional DBS. Four individuals with Parkinson’s disease who were already receiving conventional DBS were recruited for the trial. The participants, who were experiencing persistent motor symptoms despite their DBS treatment, were ideal candidates for testing the new adaptive system.
First, each participant identified their most bothersome symptom, which had not been fully addressed by conventional DBS. These symptoms ranged from involuntary movements to difficulties with initiating movement. The researchers then used a personalized algorithm to monitor the participants’ brain activity and identify neural markers associated with these motor symptoms.
To implement adaptive DBS, the participants’ brain activity was recorded while they performed various daily activities. Based on this data, an algorithm was developed to adjust the strength of the electrical stimulation in real time, depending on the patient’s brain activity. Over several months, the adaptive DBS system was fine-tuned for each individual.
The participants were then sent home with both conventional DBS and adaptive DBS systems in place. The treatment was alternated every few days, allowing the researchers to compare the effects of the two systems in real-world conditions. The goal was to see whether adaptive DBS could provide better control over motor symptoms while the participants went about their normal lives.
Implanted device responds to changes in brain signals, adjusting the amount of stimulation throughout the day, allowing individuals to go about their daily activities. (Credit: Phillp Starr Lab)
Adaptive DBS was found to significantly improve the participants’ control over their most bothersome symptoms, reducing symptom severity by around 50 percent compared to conventional DBS. The adaptive system also helped to prevent overstimulation, which can lead to side effects like involuntary movements or speech difficulties.
Notably, even though participants were not told which type of DBS they were receiving at any given time, three of the four participants were able to correctly guess when they were on adaptive DBS because they noticed a marked improvement in their symptoms.
“The key takeaway from our findings is that adaptive DBS can significantly improve the way we manage Parkinson’s disease,” Oehrn told PsyPost. “Unlike conventional DBS, which delivers constant stimulation, adaptive DBS tailors stimulation to the patient’s current brain activity, leading to better control of motor symptoms while preventing side effects. This approach marks an important step toward more personalized and responsive treatments for PD, with the potential to enhance quality of life for many patients.”
“This study marks a big step forward towards developing a DBS system that adapts to what the individual patient needs at a given time,” added Megan Frankowski, program director for NIH’s Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies® Initiative, or The BRAIN Initiative®, which helped fund this project. “By helping to control residual symptoms while not exacerbating others, adaptive DBS has the potential to improve the quality of life for some people living with Parkinson’s disease.”
A particularly important finding was the neural signal used to drive the adaptive DBS system. In previous research, lower-frequency brain activity, known as beta oscillations, had been identified as a marker of Parkinson’s symptoms. However, the researchers found that higher-frequency brain activity, known as gamma oscillations, was a more reliable indicator of when motor symptoms would worsen or improve. This discovery allowed the adaptive DBS system to make real-time adjustments more effectively.
“The biggest surprise was the neural signal we identified and how robust it was when we streamed neural data outside the lab, while patients went about their normal daily life,” Oehrn said. “Previous experiments on adaptive DBS in laboratory settings had identified lower-frequency brain activity, known as beta oscillations, as a promising biomarker for Parkinson’s symptoms. However, those findings were typically based on recordings taken while patients were off medication and off stimulation.”
“In contrast, we found that in real-world environments, where patients transition through different medication states and continuously receive stimulation, a higher-frequency brain activity (gamma oscillations) was more relevant to their symptoms. This signal reliably predicted when medication started working and when it wore off, allowing us to tailor the stimulation accordingly.”
While the findings of this study are promising, the researchers acknowledge that the trial had several limitations. First and foremost, the sample size was small, with only four participants involved. Although the results were significant for each individual, larger clinical trials will be necessary to determine whether adaptive DBS is effective for a broader population of people with Parkinson’s disease. These trials would help to ensure that the findings can be generalized to other patients with varying types and severities of symptoms.
Another limitation is the complexity of the technology used. The adaptive DBS system required extensive calibration and monitoring by highly trained clinicians to function properly. This setup process, which involved identifying specific brain signals for each patient, was labor-intensive and required months of refinement.
“The technology required specialized calibration and monitoring, which could delay its widespread clinical use,” Oehrn noted. “And while we successfully streamed neural data and applied adaptive DBS in real-world environments, more work is needed to ensure adaptive DBS remains effective and safe for long-term use.”
“This project was a real team effort, with many scientists working together to develop the adaptive algorithms. Now, the next big step is simplifying and automating the process so that adaptive DBS can be more easily used for individual patients in everyday clinical settings.”
“Long-term, my goal is to refine adaptive DBS so it can be personalized for each patient, addressing not just motor symptoms but also non-motor symptoms like mood and cognition, which are often overlooked in Parkinson’s disease treatment,” Oehrn explained. “Ultimately, we want to build a system that adjusts seamlessly to each patient’s needs throughout the day, addressing their full range of symptoms and improving their overall quality of life. We also hope to expand this approach beyond Parkinson’s disease to other neurological and psychiatric conditions where DBS has been shown to improve symptoms.”
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03196-z) Chronic adaptive deep brain stimulation versus conventional stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: a blinded randomized feasibility trial,” was authored by Carina R. Oehrn, Stephanie Cernera, Lauren H. Hammer, Maria Shcherbakova, Jiaang Yao, Amelia Hahn, Sarah Wang, Jill L. Ostrem, Simon Little, and Philip A. Starr.

(https://www.psypost.org/why-some-parents-support-delaying-lgbtq-education-the-role-of-sexuality-blindfolding/) Why some parents support delaying LGBTQ education: The role of “sexuality blindfolding”
Sep 15th 2024, 18:30

Parents who believe in “sexuality blindfolding,” the idea that avoiding conversations about LGBTQ+ identities can reduce bias, are less likely to talk to their children about these topics, a new study reveals. Published in (https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506241252198) Social Psychological and Personality Science, the research shows that these parents also support delaying LGBTQ+ discussions in schools, reflecting the significant influence of this ideology on both home and educational settings.
The researchers conducted this study in response to the growing number of laws in the United States that restrict discussions of gender identity and sexual orientation in schools. In 2022, over 238 bills targeting LGBTQ+ topics were introduced across the country, many aimed at preventing classroom discussions of sexual orientation and gender identity.
These laws often cite the need for “age-appropriate” discussions and claim to protect parents’ rights to decide what their children are exposed to in schools. However, no previous research had examined how parents’ beliefs about when it is appropriate to discuss LGBTQ+ topics with children might impact both their conversations at home and their support for such restrictive laws.
Given the critical role parents play in educating their children, the researchers aimed to fill this gap. Understanding how and when parents discuss LGBTQ+ topics is important because research has shown that inclusive education helps foster empathy and understanding, reduces bullying, and promotes healthier identity development among children of all gender identities and sexual orientations.
To investigate these questions, the researchers conducted two studies. In the first study, they recruited 503 parents with children between the ages of 5 and 10. The sample included both LGBTQ+ (187 participants) and cisgender-heterosexual (316 participants) parents.
Participants were asked to indicate what age they believed it was appropriate for children to learn about various LGBTQ+ topics, such as same-sex relationships and gender-neutral pronouns. Parents used a sliding scale ranging from 0 to 18 years to make their judgments. Additionally, they were asked how often they discussed these topics with their children, using a scale from 1 (never) to 7 (very frequently).
The researchers also measured the parents’ anticipated comfort level in having these conversations, as well as their endorsement of the ideology known as sexuality blindfolding, which suggests that avoiding discussions of LGBTQ+ topics can prevent bias (e.g., “Talking about sexual orientation creates tension in workplace or school settings” and “It is best to avoid talking about sexual orientation to prevent bias against LGBQ groups”).
The second study, which focused solely on cisgender-heterosexual parents, used a similar approach but included more detailed questions about participants’ support for restrictive education policies. A total of 334 cisgender-heterosexual parents participated, all of whom had children between the ages of 5 and 10.
The researchers found that LGBTQ+ parents, on average, believed that LGBTQ topics should be introduced to children at a younger age compared to cisgender-heterosexual parents. The difference between these groups was notable — around three years (6 years old vs. 9 years old). This suggests that LGBTQ+ parents are more comfortable with early discussions of identity and diversity, likely due to their personal experiences and a desire to instill pride and understanding in their children.
A key finding was the apparent influence of the sexuality blindfolding ideology. Parents who endorsed this ideology were more likely to believe that LGBTQ+ topics should be introduced later in childhood, reported fewer conversations about these topics with their children, and felt more uncomfortable discussing them.
Sexuality blindfolding ideology was a strong predictor of support for restrictive LGBTQ+ education policies, such as laws that limit when and how children can be exposed to LGBTQ+ content. This was especially true for parents who were exposed to articles framing such policies as part of a “parents’ bill of rights,” which emphasizes parental control over what children are taught in schools.
These studies underscore the importance of understanding parents’ beliefs about LGBTQ+ topics, as these beliefs influence both personal conversations at home and broader support for educational policies. But there are some caveats to consider. First, it relied on self-reported data, which can introduce bias, as participants may present more socially desirable attitudes or behaviors. The sample was also predominantly White, which limits the generalizability of the findings to more diverse racial and ethnic groups.
Future research could address these limitations by recruiting a more racially and ethnically diverse sample to explore how cultural backgrounds influence beliefs about LGBTQ+ topics. Longitudinal studies could also examine how parents’ beliefs and conversations evolve over time, particularly in response to ongoing exposure to restrictive education policies.
The study, “(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/19485506241252198) Predictors and Implications of Parents’ Beliefs About the Age Appropriateness of LGBTQ+ Topics for Children,” was authored by Kimberly E. Chaney, Leigh S. Wilton, Thekla Morgenroth, Rebecca Cipollina, and Izilda Pereira-Jorge.

(https://www.psypost.org/classical-music-enhances-mood-by-triggering-triple-time-locking-in-the-extended-amygdala/) Classical music enhances mood by triggering triple-time locking in the extended amygdala
Sep 15th 2024, 16:00

A recent study out of China has uncovered new insights into how listening to classical music can positively influence the brain, offering a potential non-drug approach to treating depression. Published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114474) Cell Reports, the research demonstrates that Western classical music can synchronize specific brain areas responsible for processing both sound and emotion, which helps to alleviate depressive symptoms. By using advanced brainwave measurements and neural imaging, the scientists identified that music engages a circuit connecting the auditory cortex and parts of the brain involved in reward and emotional processing, creating what the researchers call “triple-time locking” of neural oscillations.
The researchers were motivated by the need for new ways to treat depression, a major global health challenge. Current treatments, such as antidepressant medications and psychotherapy, do not work for everyone, especially for individuals suffering from treatment-resistant depression. Up to half of all people with major depressive disorder experience limited or no relief from these conventional treatments.
Music therapy has been used for centuries to improve mood, and modern science has shown that music can influence brain activity related to emotions. However, there is still much to learn about how music affects the brain, especially in people with severe forms of depression who do not respond well to standard therapies. By studying the brain’s response to music in people with treatment-resistant depression, the researchers hoped to uncover new ways to improve mental health using music as a non-invasive treatment.
The study involved 23 patients who had been diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression. All participants had experienced depressive episodes for at least two years, and none had responded well to at least three different types of antidepressant treatments. Before the experiment, each participant underwent a surgical procedure to implant electrodes deep into their brain to target specific areas involved in emotion and reward processing. These electrodes were originally implanted for deep brain stimulation therapy, which is used to treat some cases of depression, but in this study, the electrodes were used solely to record brain activity.
During the experiment, the participants listened to two different types of classical music: one piece that evoked sad emotions (Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 6) and another that evoked joyful emotions (Beethoven’s Symphony No. 7). The researchers measured participants’ emotional responses to the music using a visual analog scale, where they rated their levels of depression, anxiety, and enjoyment of the music. Brain activity was recorded using both traditional scalp-based electroencephalogram (EEG) sensors and the implanted electrodes that monitored deeper brain regions.
To better understand how music affects the brain, the researchers also used mathematical models and machine learning techniques to analyze the brainwaves. They specifically looked at how brain oscillations—rhythmic patterns of activity—were synchronized between the auditory cortex (responsible for processing sounds) and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and nucleus accumbens (NAc), two key areas involved in emotion and reward processing.
The results of the study showed that music has a profound effect on the brain, particularly when it is enjoyed by the listener. Regardless of whether the music was sad or joyful, the participants who reported higher enjoyment experienced the greatest reduction in their depressive symptoms. This suggests that personal preference plays a more significant role in the emotional and antidepressant effects of music than the specific emotional content of the music itself.
On a neural level, the researchers found that music enjoyment was linked to increased synchronization between the brain’s auditory cortex and the BNST-NAc circuit. This synchronization occurred through “triple-time locking,” a pattern where rhythmic brain activity in the auditory cortex was timed with activity in both the BNST and NAc.
“The BNST-NAc circuit, sometimes referred to as part of the ‘extended amygdala,’ underscores the close relationship between this circuit and the amygdala, a central structure in emotional information processing,” explained senior author Bomin Sun, director and professor of the Center for Functional Neurosurgery at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. “This study reveals that music induces triple-time locking of neural oscillations in the cortical-BNST-NAc circuit through auditory synchronization.”
Another significant finding is the role of brain oscillations, or rhythmic patterns of neural activity, in the brain’s response to music. The researchers observed that gamma oscillations, which are fast brainwaves associated with attention and emotional processing, were more prevalent in the BNST and NAc when participants enjoyed the music.
These gamma oscillations were also tightly linked with theta oscillations, which are slower brainwaves often associated with memory and navigation. The study showed that when participants enjoyed the music, the theta oscillations in the auditory cortex were synchronized with the gamma oscillations in the BNST and NAc, reinforcing the idea that music enjoyment activates a network of brain regions involved in emotional processing and reward.
The researchers further explored this by looking at the timing of these brainwaves, discovering that the gamma oscillations in the BNST and NAc were often “nested” within the theta oscillations in the auditory cortex. This nesting refers to the idea that the faster gamma waves occurred at specific points in the slower theta wave cycle, creating a rhythmic pattern of synchronized activity. This nesting was much stronger in participants who enjoyed the music, suggesting that the more synchronized the brain activity, the greater the emotional and antidepressant effects of the music.
Interestingly, participants who listened to music they were familiar with, but did not enjoy, showed little to no improvement in their depressive symptoms. In these cases, the brain did not show the same level of synchronization between the auditory cortex and the emotional processing regions. This further highlights the importance of personal music preference in music’s ability to alleviate depressive symptoms.
In cases where participants did not respond to music, the researchers experimented with auditory modulation. This involved introducing specific sound frequencies designed to enhance the synchronization between the auditory cortex and the BNST-NAc circuit. The results showed that this auditory modulation was successful in increasing brain synchronization and improving depressive symptoms, even in participants who had previously shown little response to music alone. This finding opens up new possibilities for using sound-based therapies to enhance the brain’s response to music, particularly for individuals who do not experience immediate benefits from music therapy.
“Our research integrates the fields of neuroscience, psychiatry, and neurosurgery, providing a foundation for any research targeting the interaction between music and emotion,” Sun said. “Ultimately, we hope to translate our research findings into clinical practice, developing convenient and effective music therapy tools and applications.”
But the study, like all research, includes some limitations. First, the sample size was relatively small, with only 23 participants. Although this number is sufficient to provide preliminary findings, larger studies will be needed to confirm these results and to see if they apply to a broader population. The researchers also faced limitations with their equipment. While the electrodes provided valuable data about deep brain activity, the precision of the measurements could be improved with newer technologies.
Looking ahead, the research team is interested in exploring how different forms of sensory stimulation, including visual and tactile experiences, might work in combination with music to enhance the therapeutic effects for people with depression. They also plan to collaborate with experts in technology and music therapy to develop digital tools that could deliver personalized music-based therapies through smartphones or other devices.
“By collaborating with clinicians, music therapists, computer scientists, and engineers, we plan to develop a series of digital health products based on music therapy, such as smartphone applications and wearable devices,” Sun said. “These products will integrate personalized music recommendations, real-time emotional monitoring and feedback, and virtual-reality multi-sensory experiences to provide convenient and effective self-help tools for managing emotions and improving symptoms in daily life.”
The study, “(https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(24)00803-9) Auditory entrainment coordinates cortical-BNST-NAc triple time locking to alleviate the depressive disorder,” was authored by Xin Lv, Yuhan Wang, Yingying Zhang, Shuo Ma, Jie Liu, Kuanghao Ye, Yunhao Wu, Valerie Voon, and Bomin Sun.

(https://www.psypost.org/meta-analysis-provides-insight-into-disrupted-brain-networks-in-behavioral-addictions/) Meta-analysis provides insight into disrupted brain networks in behavioral addictions
Sep 15th 2024, 14:00

A recent study published in the (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016503272400449X) Journal of Affective Disorders sheds light on the brain network dysfunctions associated with behavioral addictions. This meta-analysis of previous research found that people with behavioral addictions show distinct patterns of brain connectivity. Specifically, these individuals exhibited both reduced and heightened connectivity in key brain networks involved in attention, emotional regulation, and reward processing. The study’s results help provide a clearer understanding of how behavioral addictions, such as gambling or internet addiction, may affect brain function and suggest new pathways for treatment.
Behavioral addictions, which involve compulsive engagement in activities like gambling, gaming, or shopping, are becoming an increasing concern in mental health. These addictions can lead to severe personal, social, and financial consequences. Unlike substance addictions, which involve chemical dependencies, behavioral addictions center on activities that initially provide psychological rewards but eventually cause harm when they become uncontrollable.
Previous research has shown that individuals with behavioral addictions exhibit abnormal activity in brain regions involved in attention, emotional regulation, and reward processing. However, these studies have produced varying results, largely due to differences in methods and study designs. To address these inconsistencies and form a clearer picture, the researchers conducted a meta-analysis—a statistical approach that synthesizes findings from multiple studies. By doing so, they aimed to identify common patterns of brain dysfunction in individuals with behavioral addictions.
The researchers performed a meta-analysis on 56 studies that used a technique called resting-state functional connectivity. This method measures the activity of different brain regions when a person is at rest, allowing scientists to understand how different brain areas communicate with each other. The meta-analysis included data from 1,755 people with behavioral addictions and 1,828 healthy individuals for comparison. The behaviors considered as addictions in this study included gambling, internet gaming, mobile phone dependence, and problematic social media use.
The research focused on six major brain networks:

Fronto-parietal network, involved in goal-directed behavior and top-down regulation of attention.
Ventral attention network, responsible for responding to unexpected events and processing emotionally salient stimuli.
Default mode network, which is active when a person is focused on internal thoughts, such as daydreaming or self-reflection.
Reward system, crucial for processing rewards and motivation.
Somatosensory network, involved in sensory processing and motor control.
Dorsal attention network, involved in externally focused attention.

By combining the results from the 56 studies, the researchers looked for common patterns of over- or under-connectivity in these networks in individuals with behavioral addictions, comparing them to healthy controls.
The meta-analysis revealed significant differences in brain connectivity between people with behavioral addictions and healthy individuals. These differences included both reduced (hypo-connectivity) and heightened (hyper-connectivity) communication between and within several key brain networks:
Fronto-parietal Network (FN): Individuals with behavioral addictions showed reduced connectivity within this network, which is important for maintaining attention and controlling impulses. This may indicate that people with behavioral addictions have a diminished ability to regulate their behavior and make decisions in a goal-directed manner.
Ventral Attention Network (VAN): There was a complex pattern of both reduced and heightened connectivity within the VAN. This network helps detect and respond to emotionally relevant or unexpected stimuli. Disrupted connectivity in this network could explain the emotional regulation difficulties and heightened cravings seen in individuals with behavioral addictions.
Default Mode Network (DMN): The study found increased connectivity between the DMN and other networks, such as the fronto-parietal network. The DMN is typically active when a person is thinking about themselves or reflecting on past events. Increased connectivity between this network and others could suggest that people with behavioral addictions have difficulty disengaging from self-focused or internally oriented thoughts, potentially leading to compulsive behaviors.
Reward System: The study also found reduced connectivity between the reward system and networks involved in motor control (SS) and emotional regulation (VAN). The reward system is key to processing pleasure and motivation, and its impaired connectivity could be related to the inability to control urges or cravings for the addictive behavior.
Somatosensory Network (SS): Reduced connectivity was observed between the SS and the fronto-parietal network, suggesting that individuals with behavioral addictions may have trouble controlling their physical responses to cravings or addictive behaviors. However, there was also increased connectivity between the VAN and SS, suggesting heightened sensitivity to emotionally charged or rewarding stimuli.
In summary, the study revealed a complex pattern of disrupted communication between large-scale brain networks in individuals with behavioral addictions. The findings suggest that behavioral addictions are characterized by both under- and over-connectivity in brain regions involved in attention, emotional regulation, reward processing, and motor control.
But as with all research, there are some limitations. First, the meta-analysis only included studies that used one specific method—resting-state functional connectivity. Other methods of measuring brain activity, such as regional homogeneity or graph theory, were not included, limiting the scope of the findings.
Additionally, the meta-analysis combined data from studies that focused on different types of behavioral addictions, such as gambling and internet gaming. While these behaviors share common features, research indicates that (https://www.psypost.org/addiction-study-reveals-distinct-cognitive-mechanisms-behind-different-behaviors/) they also have distinct cognitive mechanisms. Future research could explore how different types of behavioral addictions affect brain function differently.
Nevertheless, by identifying both reduced and heightened connectivity in these networks, the study provides a clearer picture of the neural underpinnings of behavioral addictions. These findings could lead to new treatment approaches aimed at restoring balance in the brain’s communication networks. For instance, therapies that target specific brain regions, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, may help improve the ability to regulate cravings and reduce compulsive behaviors.
Behavioral addictions are a growing public health concern, and understanding their neural basis is crucial for developing effective interventions. While this study marks a significant step forward, further research is needed to explore how these findings can be translated into real-world treatments for individuals struggling with behavioral addictions.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.034) Large-scale network abnormality in behavioral addiction,” was authored by Pan Chen, Junjing Wang, Guixian Tang, Guanmao Chen, Shu Xiao, Zixuan Guo, Zhangzhang Qi, Jurong Wang, and Ying Wang.

(https://www.psypost.org/mindfulness-based-programs-can-lead-to-altered-states-of-consciousness-up-to-a-year-later-study-finds/) Mindfulness-based programs can lead to altered states of consciousness up to a year later, study finds
Sep 15th 2024, 12:00

A recent study examined the effects of mindfulness-based programs on individuals with severe mental illness. It found that participants who underwent these programs were more likely to experience spiritual, blissful and unity experiences, insightfulness, disembodiment, and changed meanings up to a year later. The paper was published in (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305928) PLOS ONE.
Mindfulness-based programs are designed to support mental health by encouraging present-moment awareness and fostering a non-judgmental attitude toward thoughts and emotions. These programs have consistently been shown to reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress. By teaching individuals to observe their inner experiences without reacting impulsively, mindfulness builds emotional resilience and helps people respond to stress more effectively. Research suggests that regular mindfulness practice can increase self-awareness and improve overall well-being.
Mindfulness programs have gained global popularity, with significant portions of the population engaging in them. Surveys suggest that around 15% of adults in the United Kingdom and about 20% in Australia have participated in some form of mindfulness training. However, these surveys also reveal that mindfulness practice can evoke a wide range of experiences, some of which are not necessarily pleasant. In some cases, individuals have reported intense or disorienting experiences, including those that may temporarily impair their ability to function.
Given these varied outcomes, study author Julieta Galante and her colleagues sought to explore whether mindfulness-based programs could lead to altered states of consciousness—experiences that shift one’s perception of the self and the environment. They hypothesized that individuals practicing mindfulness might experience more of these altered states, but they did not expect them to be highly unpleasant or impairing, such as extreme terror or paralysis. Instead, they predicted that participants would report a range of such states and that positive altered states might reduce psychological distress, while negative ones could increase it.
An altered state of consciousness refers to “a short-lasting marked deviation in the subjective experience or psychological functioning of a normal individual from their usual waking consciousness.” These states can include a variety of experiences, such as a dissolving sense of self (ego dissolution), disembodiment (the feeling of being detached from one’s body), sensory changes, impaired cognitive function, intense emotions, or shifts in how one interprets their surroundings (changed meanings). Such states can occur during meditation, deep relaxation, or even during mundane activities.
The participants in the study were University of Cambridge students who were not experiencing any severe mental or physical health issues. They were divided into two cohorts—342 students in October 2015 and 274 students in January 2016. Out of these 616 participants, only 205 students completed the follow-up questionnaires used in this specific analysis.
The study design randomly assigned students to one of two groups. One group took part in an eight-week mindfulness program called Mindfulness Skills for Students, which was specifically adapted for the university context. The program included weekly sessions lasting 75 to 90 minutes, taught by a trained mindfulness teacher in small groups of up to 30 students. The other group of students received the usual mental health support available at the university but did not participate in the mindfulness course.
The data for this study came from questionnaires completed by the students one year after their initial treatment. These questionnaires included the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale, which asked about experiences such as disembodiment and unity. In addition, students completed assessments of psychological distress both before the program and one year later. Throughout the follow-up period, participants were also asked to report on their mindfulness practices at home, including both formal meditation (such as sitting meditation) and informal mindfulness (such as mindful walking or eating).
The results showed that students who participated in the mindfulness-based program reported more frequent and intense experiences of unity, where they felt a sense of oneness with their surroundings. These students were also more likely to experience disembodiment, a feeling of detachment from the physical body, compared to students who received only standard mental health support.
Further analysis revealed that formal mindfulness practice—structured meditation exercises—was associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing spiritual, blissful, and unity states, as well as insightfulness, disembodiment, and altered meanings of perceptions. In contrast, informal mindfulness practice, such as integrating mindfulness into daily activities, was specifically linked to feelings of unity and bliss.
These findings suggest a potential causal relationship between mindfulness practice and altered states of consciousness. As the study authors noted, “Results provide a novel suggestion of causal links between mindfulness practice and specific altered states of consciousness. To optimize their impact, practitioners and teachers need to anticipate and handle them appropriately.”
The study sheds light on the effects of mindfulness-training on altered states of consciousness. However, the data relied entirely on self-reported experiences, which means that participants’ memories or interpretations of their experiences could have influenced the results. Moreover, only 205 of the 616 students who initially enrolled in the study completed the altered states questionnaire, which could introduce bias if the students who did not complete the questionnaire had different experiences than those who did.
Additionally, while the study found associations between mindfulness practice and altered states, it did not explore the underlying mechanisms that might explain why these experiences occur. Future research could investigate how mindfulness affects brain activity and consciousness to better understand the pathways through which altered states arise.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305928) Altered states of consciousness caused by a mindfulness-based programme up to a year later: Results from a randomised controlled trial,” was authored by Julieta Galante, Jesus Montero-Marin, Maris VainreI, Ge´raldine Dufour, Javier Garcı´a-Campayo, and Peter B. Jones.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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