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(https://www.psypost.org/spiritual-transformations-may-help-sustain-the-long-term-benefits-of-psychedelic-experiences-study-suggests/) Spiritual transformations may help sustain the long-term benefits of psychedelic experiences, study suggests
Sep 14th 2024, 10:00

In a recent study published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-63687-4) Scientific Reports, researchers explored the link between past psychedelic use, metaphysical beliefs, and well-being. The findings suggest that people who have used psychedelics tend to adopt metaphysical idealism—a belief that consciousness is fundamental to reality. This belief was associated with greater psychological well-being. Interestingly, other metaphysical beliefs, including other non-physicalist views, did not show a similar relationship.
Psychedelic substances, such as psilocybin (found in certain mushrooms), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and dimethyltryptamine (DMT), have long been known to induce profound changes in perception, cognition, and even spiritual experiences. These experiences often lead individuals to question fundamental aspects of reality. Previous research has shown that such experiences can result in long-term psychological benefits, such as increased well-being and reductions in anxiety and depression. However, the specific mechanisms driving these changes remain unclear.
One theory posits that shifts in metaphysical beliefs—how people view the nature of reality—might play a key role in these long-term benefits. In particular, the researchers wanted to investigate whether psychedelic experiences lead to a shift toward non-physicalist metaphysical beliefs, such as idealism (the idea that consciousness is fundamental to reality) or panpsychism (the belief that consciousness exists in all things), and whether these beliefs are linked to well-being.
“It is a common assumption that psychedelics can facilitate spiritual-type awakenings or insights about the nature of reality, which could alleviate suffering,” said study author (https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=RcDtcG8AAAAJ) Jussi Jylkkä, a senior researcher at Åbo Akademi University. “For example, consider a person with a materialistic-nihilistic worldview, who holds that everything is ultimately dead matter without purpose or value. If that person starts to believe that the nature of reality is, for example, loving consciousness, it is intuitive that it could lead to better psychological wellbeing.”
“We wanted to know exactly what type of metaphysical ideas, or conceptions of the nature of reality, are associated with psychedelics use, and whether they are linked with wellbeing. I think that the Western approach to psychological wellbeing often ignores spiritual and existential aspects.”
The study involved 701 participants, all of whom had at least one previous experience with classical psychedelics, including substances like psilocybin, LSD, mescaline, or DMT. Participants were recruited through an online platform, and the researchers administered a series of questionnaires to assess their past psychedelic use, their current metaphysical beliefs, and their levels of psychological well-being.
The first step of the study involved assessing participants’ metaphysical beliefs. The researchers used a newly developed tool called the Core Metaphysical Beliefs (CMB) questionnaire, which consisted of 42 statements about the nature of reality. These statements reflected different metaphysical positions, including idealism, materialism, and other non-physicalist views such as dualism and panpsychism. The researchers also included other established metaphysical belief measures for comparison.
To measure psychological well-being, the researchers administered two well-being scales. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS) was used to capture overall well-being, including emotional and functional aspects of mental health, while the Peace of Mind Scale (PoMS) was used to assess a sense of inner peace and harmony.
The researchers also asked participants to reflect on the nature of their most meaningful psychedelic experience. They used the Mystical Experience Questionnaire to assess the depth of participants’ mystical-type experiences, which often include a sense of oneness with the universe, feelings of profound insight, and the perception of reality as sacred. Participants were also asked to reflect on the psychological insights they experienced during their psychedelic experience using the Psychological Insight Questionnaire. These insights can range from recognizing maladaptive behavioral patterns to gaining a clearer sense of personal goals or understanding emotional issues.
The researchers found that participants who had used psychedelics more frequently were more likely to endorse metaphysical idealism, the belief that consciousness is the fundamental nature of reality. This shift in beliefs was not observed with other metaphysical positions, such as materialism (the belief that reality is purely physical) or dualism (the idea that mind and matter are separate entities).
Most importantly, the researchers found that idealism mediated the relationship between past psychedelic use and well-being. In other words, people who had used psychedelics in the past were more likely to endorse idealism, which, in turn, predicted their higher well-being.
“Based on our results, psychedelic experiences could facilitate the idealistic belief that some type of loving consciousness is the fundamental nature of reality,” Jylkkä told PsyPost. “Endorsement of this idea was also linked with better psychological wellbeing. The results are in line with the hypothesis that psychedelics could alleviate suffering through spiritual-type transformations. However, it is important to notice that the effects were not strong, and that there are several other factors besides worldview changes that are also important, such as increases in mindfulness capacity or psychological flexibility.”
Interestingly, while idealism played a significant role in linking psychedelic use to well-being, other metaphysical beliefs, such as materialism, were not associated with well-being. This suggests that not all metaphysical shifts have the same impact on mental health. The results also showed that psychological insights were associated with a greater endorsement of idealism. In fact, psychological insight was more strongly linked to idealism than mystical-type experiences (such as feelings of unity with the universe or sacredness).
“It was surprising that it was psychological insight experienced during the psychedelic experience, instead of its mystical-type features, that was linked with idealistic worldview,” Jylkkä said. “We expected that the mystical-type features would be more important, given their spiritual connotations.”
But as with all research, there are some caveats to note. First, the study was cross-sectional, meaning it relied on participants’ self-reported data about their past experiences and current beliefs. This makes it difficult to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship.
“This was a retrospective study, meaning that the participants were asked about their past psychedelic experiences, and current worldview,” Jylkkä noted. “Thus, we cannot draw conclusions about causality: does psychedelics use lead to idealistic worldview, or could it be that people with an idealistic worldview are more likely to use psychedelics? We will address this in a forthcoming longitudinal study, which can show if there’s a causal link.”
In addition, while the study found a strong link between idealism and well-being, it remains unclear why this particular belief system might lead to improved mental health. Is it the comforting notion that consciousness is fundamental to reality? Or is it the sense of connection and meaning that idealism offers? Further research is needed to unpack the specific aspects of idealism that might be driving these effects.
“I wish to explore through a longitudinal or experimental setup whether psychedelics really cause people to believe in idealism, and how important that is for their wellbeing. I’m also interested in what idealism or other spiritual-type beliefs mean for lay people, how they conceive of it, and how they think that psychedelic experience justifies that belief,” Jylkkä told PsyPost.
“While it’s an empirical question what people believe, it’s a philosophical question to determine whether the belief is true and justified. Many scientists and philosophers think that mystical-type beliefs are ‘woo’ because they are not scientific, but I don’t think it’s so simple (I discuss this question (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515089.2024.2391433) in another recent article). When it comes to philosophical or metaphysical questions, science reaches its limits, and philosophy has its place. It would be naturalistic chauvinism to claim that science can answer all questions.”
The study suggests that spiritual transformations may help sustain the long-term effects of psychedelic experiences, but they are not the only path to psychological benefits. The researchers noted that psychedelics can lead to a broad range of experiences, both positive and negative, and emphasized the importance of responsible use to minimize potential risks.
“Although spiritual transformations could be a central element in some people’s psychedelic experiences, many people don’t experience them,” Jylkkä said. “Psychedelics can facilitate an extremely wide range of different types of experiences, including negative ones, and spiritual experiences are only one type. There are many aspects of psychedelics besides the mystical or spiritual. In many cases, psychedelic transformations are similar to those one might experience in psychotherapy, completely ‘secular.’ And it is important to remember that psychedelics don’t only facilitate positive experiences, their irresponsible use can be risky.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63687-4) Endorsement of metaphysical idealism mediates a link between past use of psychedelics and wellbeing,” was authored by Jussi Jylkkä, Andreas Krabbe, and Patrick Jern.

(https://www.psypost.org/testosterone-makes-young-men-less-sensitive-to-angry-faces/) Testosterone makes young men less sensitive to angry faces
Sep 14th 2024, 08:00

A study of young men in China found that administering a single dose of testosterone made participants less sensitive to angry faces, but it had no effect on their sensitivity to fearful expressions. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106948) Psychoneuroendocrinology.
Testosterone is a steroid hormone primarily produced in the testes in males and, to a lesser extent, in the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. It plays a critical role in the development of male reproductive tissues, such as the testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics like increased muscle mass and body hair.
Testosterone levels also influence behavior. Studies have shown that increased testosterone levels can enhance aggressive tendencies, particularly in competitive situations or when one’s social status is challenged. Elevated testosterone is also thought to increase risk-taking behaviors, particularly in social and financial domains, making individuals more assertive, dominant, and likely to take leadership roles.
Study author Yu Nan and her colleagues noted that previous research suggested testosterone might increase aggressive and dominant behaviors by reducing an individual’s sensitivity to social threat cues. However, other studies have indicated the opposite. To clarify this, the researchers examined how testosterone administration affected the perception of angry and fearful faces in young men.
The study included 125 healthy men between the ages of 18 and 25, recruited through advertisements at a Chinese university. The participants were divided into two groups: one group received a single dose of gel containing 150 mg of testosterone (Androgel), which a male assistant applied to their shoulders and upper arms.
The other group received a placebo gel, identical in appearance but containing no testosterone, applied in the same way. Neither the participants nor the assistant knew which gel was being administered. Participants were compensated 150 CNY (approximately $21) for their time.
Three hours after gel application, when testosterone concentration was expected to peak, participants completed a task in which they viewed a series of digitally morphed faces. One set of faces displayed varying degrees of anger, while another set showed varying degrees of fear. The faces were morphed to blend emotional expressions with neutral ones to different extents. Participants were instructed to press a key corresponding to the emotion they believed the face represented. Before the main experiment, they practiced the task with a separate set of images.
As expected, the results showed that participants found it easier to recognize anger in faces that were morphed to resemble the original angry expression more closely. Participants who received testosterone were better at recognizing angry faces than those who received the placebo gel.
When it came to recognizing fearful expressions, participants performed better with faces that more closely resembled the original fear expression. However, there were no significant differences between the testosterone and placebo groups in how well they recognized fear.
“By combining computational modeling and psychophysical approaches in an emotion recognition task, we found that exogenous testosterone administration reduces sensitivity to angry facial expressions. The decreased sensitivity to other’s facial threats could lead individuals to misestimate others’ dominance and thus increase one’s own aggressive behavior, a social cognitive mechanism that extends the Challenge Hypothesis,” the study authors concluded.
The Challenge Hypothesis predicts that testosterone levels temporarily increase during contests between males, such as competition for mates or status. These testosterone surges then promote aggressive and dominant behaviors toward male competitors and mating behaviors toward females.
This study sheds light on the effects of testosterone on recognizing anger in others. However, all the participants were young men, and the task involved recognizing emotions in digitally altered images. Future studies on different demographic groups and with more naturalistic emotional stimuli may yield different results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106948) Testosterone administration decreases sensitivity to angry facial expressions in healthy males: A computational modeling approach,” was authored by Yu Nan, Pranjal Mehta, Jiajun Liao, Yueyuan Zheng, Chengyang Han, and Yin Wu.

(https://www.psypost.org/groundbreaking-study-shows-women-more-genetically-prone-to-ptsd/) Groundbreaking study shows women more genetically prone to PTSD
Sep 14th 2024, 06:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230104) American Journal of Psychiatry has revealed that women may be at a higher genetic risk for developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to men. This study, led by researchers from Virginia Commonwealth University and Lund University, is the largest twin-sibling study on PTSD conducted to date. The findings suggest that while both men and women are genetically susceptible to PTSD, the underlying genetic risk may be stronger in women.
Post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychiatric condition that occurs after experiencing or witnessing traumatic events. Individuals with PTSD often suffer from distressing symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares, anxiety, and emotional numbness. While PTSD can affect anyone, studies have shown that women are twice as likely as men to develop the condition. Despite this disparity, the reasons behind the higher prevalence of PTSD in women remain unclear.
Many hypotheses have been proposed, including differences in trauma exposure, coping mechanisms, and biological factors. However, there has been limited research investigating the genetic underpinnings of these sex differences.
Previous studies hinted that PTSD might have a genetic component, but they left a gap in understanding whether these genetic risks differ between men and women. Additionally, earlier studies were often limited by small sample sizes or reliance on self-reported data, which can introduce biases. To address these shortcomings, the research team aimed to test whether genetic risk factors for PTSD vary between men and women using a large, nationally representative sample from Sweden.
“PTSD is an important disorder that has received less attention compared to other psychiatric disorders in genetic epidemiologic studies. Thus, estimates of heritability, that is, the degree to which genes influence risk for the disorder, and sex differences in the heritability of PTSD were important to study,” said Ananda B. Amstadter, a professor in the Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine’s departments of Psychiatry and Human and Molecular Genetics and lead author of the study.
For their study, the researchers analyzed data from over 16,000 twin pairs and more than 376,000 sibling pairs from Swedish national health and population registries. This large sample allowed them to explore both the genetic and environmental components of PTSD in a way that previous studies, with smaller sample sizes, could not.
The researchers gathered their data from several Swedish national registers, including the Swedish Twin Registry, which provided information on twins, and the Multi-Generation Register, which tracked full siblings. They also accessed health data from hospital records, outpatient care, and primary care clinics, which included PTSD diagnoses based on the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes.
By using these registry-based medical diagnoses, the researchers avoided potential biases related to self-reported data, such as memory errors or reporting inconsistencies. This gave their study a solid foundation for more accurate analysis.
To isolate the genetic factors contributing to PTSD, the researchers employed statistical models that compared different sets of twins and siblings. Monozygotic twins, who share 100% of their genes, were compared to dizygotic twins and full siblings, who share about 50% of their genes. This allowed the researchers to estimate the heritability of PTSD, which refers to the proportion of variation in PTSD risk that can be attributed to genetic differences.
“If you think of risk for PTSD like a pie chart, we’re trying to better understand what factors make up the pieces of this pie,” Amstadter said. “Some of the risk is influenced by a person’s environment, such as the experiences they have while growing up. On the other hand, some of the risk will be influenced by the genes they inherit from their parents.”
The study’s findings revealed that PTSD is moderately heritable, with genetic factors accounting for approximately 35% of the risk in women and 29% in men. This means that while both sexes inherit some genetic susceptibility to PTSD, the genetic contribution is stronger in women. This quantitative difference in heritability suggests that women have a higher genetic risk for developing PTSD compared to men, even after accounting for environmental factors.
Moreover, the study found evidence for qualitative differences in the genetic risk for PTSD between men and women. Although many of the same genes contribute to PTSD in both sexes, some genes appear to have sex-specific effects. This qualitative difference indicates that the genetic architecture of PTSD is not entirely the same in men and women, which could explain part of the observed disparity in PTSD prevalence.
“PTSD was found to be moderately heritable in both males and females,” Amstadter told PsyPost. “However, the heritability was significantly higher in females, meaning that genetic risk for PTSD is higher in females compared to males. Further, although the heritability was correlated substantially between the sexes, the findings suggest that some of the genes that contribute to the heritability for the sexes differ. This means that future research should focus on sex-specific pathways of risk for the disorder, which may have important implications for treatments.”
In addition to genetic factors, the researchers found that unique environmental experiences—such as individual life events or specific traumatic exposures—played a significant role in the development of PTSD. These environmental factors accounted for the majority of the variance in PTSD risk for both men and women.
Interestingly, the researchers found no evidence that shared family environments, such as growing up in the same household, had a significant influence on PTSD risk. This suggests that while genetics and personal experiences are important, the general family environment does not seem to contribute much to the likelihood of developing PTSD.
One intriguing direction for future research is investigating the role of sex hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, in PTSD. Previous studies have suggested that hormonal fluctuations, particularly in women, may influence the development of PTSD by affecting the body’s stress response systems.
For example, estrogen has been shown to regulate genes involved in the stress response, and changes in estrogen levels during the menstrual cycle may make women more vulnerable to stress-related disorders like PTSD. Future studies could examine how these hormonal effects interact with genetic risk factors to increase or decrease the likelihood of developing PTSD.
Another area for future research is examining how genetic factors influence responses to PTSD treatments. While trauma-focused therapies, such as cognitive processing therapy, are effective for both men and women, some studies have suggested that women may respond better to these treatments than men. Understanding the genetic basis of treatment response could help personalize PTSD interventions, ensuring that individuals receive the most effective treatments based on their unique genetic and environmental risk factors.
The study, “(https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230104) Testing Quantitative and Qualitative Sex Effects in a National Swedish Twin-Sibling Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” was authored by Ananda B. Amstadter, Sara L. Lönn, Shannon Cusack, Jan Sundquist, Kenneth S. Kendler, and Kristina Sundquist.

(https://www.psypost.org/racism-and-discrimination-lead-to-faster-aging-through-brain-network-changes-new-study-finds/) Racism and discrimination lead to faster aging through brain network changes, new study finds
Sep 13th 2024, 16:00

Racism steals time from people’s lives – possibly because of the space it occupies in the mind. In a new study published in the journal JAMA Network Open, our team showed that the (https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.16588) toll of racism on the brain was linked to advanced aging, observed on a cellular level.
Black women who were more frequently exposed to racism showed stronger connections in brain networks involved with rumination and vigilance. We found that this, in turn, was connected to accelerated biological aging.
(https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kbR0yQMAAAAJ&hl=en) We are neuroscientists who (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Tu1xSzgAAAAJ&hl=en) use a variety of approaches, including self-reported data and biological measurements like brain scans, to answer our questions about the (https://theconversation.com/racism-produces-subtle-brain-changes-that-lead-to-increased-disease-risk-in-black-populations-214053) effects of stressors on the brain and body. We also use this data to inform the development of interventions to help people cope with this stress.
Why it matters
Aging is a natural process. However, (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbi.2022.05.016) stress can speed up the biological clock, making people (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105359) more vulnerable to aging-related diseases, from cardiovascular disease to diabetes and dementia.
Epidemiological studies consistently show that Black people experience these aging-related health problems (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2014.07.022) at an earlier age than white people. New studies also show focal effects of aging on the brain, indicating (https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.3919) disparities in brain aging between Black and white populations.
Race-related stressors, including (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100774) racial discrimination, affect the (https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-024-01915-3) rate at which people age on a biological level. These experiences activate the stress response system and have been linked to (https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1480) greater activity in brain regions that process incoming threats. However, until now, researchers in our field have not understood how brain changes linked to racism contribute to accelerated aging.
Racial discrimination is a ubiquitous stressor that often goes unnoticed. It might look like a doctor questioning a Black patient’s pain level and not prescribing pain medication, or a teacher calling a Black child a “thug.” It is a constant stressor faced by Black people starting at an early age.
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2008.10.003) Rumination – reliving and analyzing an event on a loop – and (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.12.006) vigilance, meaning being watchful for future threats, are possible coping responses to these stressors. But rumination and vigilance take energy, and this increased energy expenditure has a biological cost.
In our study of Black women, we found that more frequent racial discrimination was linked to more connectivity between two key regions. One, called the (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-020-0360-9) locus coeruleus, is a deep brain region that activates the stress response, promoting arousal and vigilance. The other is the (https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awl004) precuneus, a key node of a brain network that engages when we think about our experiences and internalize – or suppress – our emotions.
(https://images.theconversation.com/files/611169/original/file-20240802-17-6hqbvt.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip) Locus coeruleus highlighted in blue; region of precuneus highlighted in green. (Credit: Negar Fani)
These brain changes, in turn, were linked to accelerated cellular aging measured by an epigenetic “clock.” (https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/howgeneswork/epigenome/#) Epigenetics refers to changes that happen to our DNA from the environment. Epigenetic clocks assess how the environment affects our aging at a molecular level.
Higher clock values indicate that someone’s (https://theconversation.com/are-you-a-rapid-ager-biological-age-is-a-better-health-indicator-than-the-number-of-years-youve-lived-but-its-tricky-to-measure-198849) biological age is greater than their chronological age. In other words, the space that racist experiences occupy in people’s minds has a cost, which can shorten the lifespan.
What still isn’t known
Although we saw links between racism, brain connectivity changes and accelerated aging, we did not measure coping responses like rumination and vigilance in real time, meaning as people were experiencing them.
We also do not know how other factors such as (https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.34483) neighborhood disadvantage, gender and sexuality intersect to influence accelerated aging and (https://theconversation.com/kids-neighborhoods-can-affect-their-developing-brains-a-new-study-finds-184035) related health disparities.
What’s next
Our next steps are to use real-time measurement of everyday racism along with physiological measurements and neuroimaging to take a deeper dive into these research questions.
We want to know how different types of racial discrimination and coping styles influence brain and body responses. Understanding these issues better can bring more attention to prevention, such as (https://diversity.nih.gov/general-page/implicit-bias) programs that target implicit bias in physicians and teachers. It can also inform interventions like (https://www.neuromodulation.com/about-neuromodulation) neuromodulation, which involves the use of external or internal devices to stimulate or inhibit brain activity. Neuromodulation can be used as a therapy aid to reduce stress.

This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/racism-and-discrimination-lead-to-faster-aging-through-brain-network-changes-new-study-finds-233959) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/long-term-cognitive-and-psychiatric-symptoms-persist-in-covid-19-patients-even-years-after-hospitalization/) Long-term cognitive and psychiatric symptoms persist in COVID-19 patients even years after hospitalization
Sep 13th 2024, 14:00

A recent study published in (https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(24)00214-1/fulltext) The Lancet Psychiatry indicates that many individuals who were hospitalized with COVID-19 continue to experience cognitive and psychiatric issues two to three years after their infection. The study sheds light on the long-term effects of COVID-19 on mental health and cognitive function, showing that these issues worsen over time and can negatively impact daily life, including the ability to work.
As COVID-19 spread globally, researchers noticed a concerning trend: many people who had recovered from the initial illness continued to report problems such as anxiety, depression, and cognitive difficulties. For those who were hospitalized, the risk seemed particularly high. However, it was unclear whether these symptoms persisted or worsened over time, or if new issues arose long after the acute phase of the illness.
Previous studies primarily relied on electronic health records, which only offered a snapshot of diagnosis rather than a detailed picture of symptom evolution. Additionally, many of these studies only tracked patients for about 18 months post-infection, leaving a gap in our understanding of what happens beyond this period.
The aim of the new study, called the (https://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/news/new-study-will-investigate-brain-fog-symptoms-in-post-hospitalised-covid-19-patients) COVID Fog (C-Fog) study, was to provide a clearer understanding of the trajectory of psychiatric and cognitive symptoms in the two to three years following hospitalization for COVID-19. Researchers also wanted to identify factors that predict long-term symptoms and understand the occupational impact of these cognitive and psychiatric challenges.
“We knew that people who had COVID-19 (especially those hospitalised for COVID-19) were at an increased risk of a range of neurological disorders. However, we did not know whether symptoms improve or persist over time, what predicts them, and how they relate to the ability to work,” said study author (https://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/team/maxime-taquet) Maxime Taquet, a NIHR Clinical Lecturer in Psychiatry at the University of Oxford.
The C-Fog study is part of a broader effort called (https://www.phosp.org/) the Post-hospitalization COVID-19 study (PHOSP-COVID), which followed nearly 8,000 adults discharged from hospitals across the U.K. after COVID-19. For this specific analysis, the researchers focused on a subset of 475 participants who had been hospitalized with COVID-19 and were followed for two to three years after their discharge.
Participants were asked to complete a range of online assessments between late 2022 and mid-2023. These included cognitive tests to measure skills such as memory and reaction speed, and questionnaires that assessed depression, anxiety, and fatigue. The researchers also gathered information about any changes in employment or work capacity, asking participants if they had altered their occupation or working status due to health reasons after their COVID-19 hospitalization.
Importantly, the researchers compared the cognitive and psychiatric symptoms of participants at different time points: six months, 12 months, and two to three years after their initial hospital stay. This allowed them to track how these symptoms evolved over time.
The study’s findings paint a troubling picture of long-term brain symptoms following COVID-19 hospitalization. Cognitive and psychiatric issues, including depression, anxiety, and fatigue, did not diminish over time. Instead, they worsened for many individuals between the one-year and three-year marks.
“We were surprised to see that on average neuropsychiatric symptoms got worse 2 to 3 years after COVID-19 hospitalisation compared to 6 and 12 months post-hospitalization,” Taquet told PsyPost.
Nearly half of the participants reported moderate to severe depression, and about a quarter experienced significant cognitive decline two to three years post-hospitalization. Fatigue was another common problem, affecting 62 percent of participants. Alarmingly, more than one in four people had changed their job or working status due to poor health. The cognitive symptoms, such as difficulty concentrating or remembering things, were strongly linked to these occupational changes.
In addition to tracking symptom severity, the researchers also identified a pattern in how symptoms emerged. Individuals who already experienced symptoms like depression, anxiety, or fatigue at the six-month mark were more likely to develop new or worsening symptoms over the next couple of years. For example, someone with anxiety at six months might later develop depression or experience cognitive decline.
Interestingly, the severity of the initial COVID-19 illness did not appear to predict long-term symptoms. In other words, even people who were less severely ill while in the hospital could still face significant mental health and cognitive challenges years later. Instead, the best predictor of long-term problems was how individuals were faring six months after their hospitalization. Those who had more severe symptoms early on were more likely to continue struggling two to three years later.
“Some people hospitalized for COVID-19 continue to experience symptoms such as cognitive problems, depression, anxiety, and fatigue 2 to 3 years after hospitalization. This is mostly the case among people who already had symptoms 6 months after hospitalization, whereas most of those who were well at 6 months remained well at 2 to 3 years,” Taquet explained.
“People who worked less 2 to 3 years after being hospitalized for COVID-19 were mostly those who had cognitive difficulties, and not necessarily those who had anxiety, depression, or fatigue, suggesting that they stopped working because they could not face the cognitive demands of their job, rather than because they lacked interest or motivation.”
While the C-Fog study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. One major limitation is that the study focused only on individuals who were hospitalized with COVID-19, meaning the results may not apply to people who had milder cases of the virus or those who were not hospitalized.
Additionally, only 19 percent of those invited to participate in the follow-up study actually took part. This relatively low response rate raises the possibility that the study may not capture the full range of experiences, as those who were experiencing more severe or long-lasting symptoms might have been more likely to respond.
Looking forward, the researchers highlight several areas for further investigation. One key question is understanding the biological mechanisms behind these persistent symptoms. Early findings suggest that certain blood markers measured during acute COVID-19 infection may be linked to long-term cognitive and psychiatric issues.
For example, elevated levels of a molecule called D-dimer, which is associated with blood clotting, may point to the presence of tiny blood clots in the brain that could be contributing to cognitive decline. However, more research is needed to confirm these findings and identify other potential mechanisms, such as inflammation in the brain.
Additionally, the study’s authors emphasize the need for more research on interventions that could help prevent or treat these long-term symptoms. They suggest that addressing symptoms like anxiety or cognitive difficulties early on, perhaps through therapies targeting these issues, could prevent the development of a more complex and debilitating syndrome over time.
“As a research community, we strive to identify mechanisms and treatments for these symptoms,” Taquet said.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(24)00214-1) Cognitive and psychiatric symptom trajectories 2–3 years after hospital admission for COVID-19: a longitudinal, prospective cohort study in the UK,” was authored by Maxime Taquet, Zuzanna Skorniewska, Thomas De Deyn, Adam Hampshire, William R. Trender, Peter J. Hellyer, James D. Chalmers, Ling-Pei Ho, Alex Horsley, Michael Marks, Krisnah Poinasamy, Betty Raman, Olivia C. Leavy, Matthew Richardson, Omer Elneima, Hamish J. C. McAuley, Aarti Shikotra, Amisha Singapuri, Marco Sereno, Ruth M. Saunders, Victoria C. Harris, Natalie Rogers, Linzy Houchen-Wolloff, Neil J. Greening, Parisa Mansoori, Ewen M. Harrison, Annemarie B. Docherty, Nazir I. Lone, Jennifer Quint, Christopher E. Brightling, Louise V. Wain, Rachael A. Evans, John R. Geddes, and Paul J. Harrison on behalf of the PHOSP-COVID Study Collaborative Group.

(https://www.psypost.org/higher-honesty-in-romantic-couples-correlates-with-enhanced-brain-synchronization/) Higher honesty in romantic couples correlates with enhanced brain synchronization
Sep 13th 2024, 12:00

A recent neuroimaging study in China had romantic couples and pairs of strangers play a simple card game while undergoing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) scans. The results showed that romantic couples achieved higher brain synchronization and used less deception (to win the game) compared to pairs of strangers. The research, published in (https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/5/833) Brain Sciences, suggests that romantic couples may have a neural advantage in fostering honesty through deeper brain connections.
Interpersonal brain synchronization is a phenomenon where the brain activity of two or more individuals becomes aligned or synchronized during social interactions. This synchronization can be observed using techniques that monitor brain activity, such as electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), or fNIRS. It is thought to occur when individuals are engaged in cooperative tasks, effective communication, or shared emotional experiences.
However, studies suggest that when individuals engage in deceptive behavior, the usual brain synchronization that occurs during honest and cooperative interactions may decrease. This is because deception involves cognitive processes like inhibition, conflict monitoring, and effortful control, which can disrupt the natural alignment of brain activity. For example, when one person is trying to deceive another, the brain regions associated with social and emotional alignment may show less synchrony compared to when they are being truthful.
The mental effort required to fabricate information or hide the truth can break down the regular flow of mutual understanding, disrupting brain synchronization. Because of this, some researchers believe that it might be possible to detect deceptive behavior by monitoring brain synchronization between individuals engaged in social interaction.
Study author Chong Shao wanted to explore how the relationship between individuals and their gender influences the level of brain synchronization during a game, as well as how levels of honesty and deception would be associated with these characteristics. The experiment was conducted using fNIRS.
fNIRS is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen levels, particularly in the cortical regions. The study focused on the prefrontal cortex and the right temporoparietal junction. The prefrontal cortex is important for engaging in the process of deception, but also for detecting deception. The right temporoparietal junction is a brain region strongly associated with mentalizing ability, which is the ability to attribute mental states such as beliefs, desires, and intentions to oneself and others. Previous studies have also detected activities associated with deception in this area.
The study involved 184 college and undergraduate students, all in male-female dyads. Of these, 146 were romantic couples, and 38 were strangers, all in their early 20s.
In the experimental session, dyads played a card game called “Natural Enemy” (one member of the dyad against the other) while undergoing fNIRS. This card game was developed by the study authors for the experiment, inspired by sender-receiver and rock-paper-scissors games. In the game, one partner (the informer) would see two cards, while the other partner (the guesser) would see only one. One of the cards beats the other (similar to rock-paper-scissors). The informer is then supposed to describe the card the guesser has not seen. After this, the guesser has to choose one of the two cards.
If the guesser chooses the higher card, they win. The informer wins if the guesser chooses the lower card. The informer is free to either honestly describe the card to the guesser or attempt to deceive them. The amount of money each participant received for participation depended on how much they won or lost in this game.
The results showed that romantic couples were less likely to deceive each other compared to strangers. This was reflected not only in their behavior but also in their brain activity. The researchers found that romantic couples exhibited increased brain synchronization in the prefrontal cortex and right temporoparietal junction when they were interacting, especially during moments of potential deception. This synchronization was higher in romantic couples than in stranger pairs.
Interestingly, the researchers found that brain synchronization was negatively correlated with deception rates in romantic couples. In other words, the stronger the brain synchronization between two romantic partners, the less likely they were to deceive each other. This suggests that the brain connections between romantic partners may play a role in promoting honesty and maintaining trust in the relationship.
In contrast, no significant increase in brain synchronization was observed between the stranger pairs. This lack of synchronization may help explain why strangers were more likely to deceive each other than romantic couples. The results also showed that females tended to deceive males more than the other way around, but this pattern held true more for strangers than for couples.
Moreover, when romantic couples did deceive each other, the researchers found that the brain regions involved in these interactions differed based on the gender of the sender. Male senders showed increased synchronization in brain areas linked to mentalizing, or understanding the thoughts and intentions of others, while female senders displayed higher synchronization in areas associated with social processing.
“The result corroborated the lower deception of males and romantic couples in cross-sex interactions. Furthermore, IBS [interpersonal brain synchronization] in the PFC [prefrontal cortex] and rTPJ [right temporoparietal junction] was the underlying dual-brain neural basis for supporting honesty in romantic couples,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on brain activity during deceptive behaviors. However, it should be noted that the pairs of participants played a simple game with very low stakes, and the results might differ with other types of games or when the stakes are higher.
The paper “(https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13050833) Increased Interpersonal Brain Synchronization in Romantic Couples Is Associated with Higher Honesty: An fNIRS Hyperscanning Study” was authored by Chong Shao, Xuecheng Zhang, You Wu, Wenhai Zhang, and Binghai Sun.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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