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(https://www.psypost.org/excessive-mind-wandering-mediates-link-between-adhd-and-depression-anxiety-study-finds/) Excessive mind wandering mediates link between ADHD and depression/anxiety, study finds
Sep 10th 2024, 10:00

A study of adults diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) suggests that excessive mind wandering, rumination, and decreased mindfulness may mediate the link between ADHD symptoms and depression/anxiety. ADHD may predispose individuals to excessive mind wandering, rumination, and reduced mindfulness, which in turn can lead to more severe symptoms of depression and anxiety. The paper was published in Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy.
ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning. People with ADHD often struggle to focus, follow through on tasks, or stay organized. They may act impulsively and have difficulty sitting still. Although ADHD is typically diagnosed in childhood, symptoms can persist into adulthood, albeit with a tendency to lessen over time.
Research indicates that individuals with ADHD frequently exhibit symptoms of depression and anxiety. While studying this link, researchers became interested in another symptom associated with ADHD—excessive mind wandering. Mind wandering refers to spontaneous thoughts that are unrelated to the task at hand and can divert attention, acting as a distraction.
Although mind wandering is a normal cognitive process, studies show that ADHD is associated with excessive mind wandering, which is characterized by rapid, frequent shifts in thought. This phenomenon is distracting and leads to mental restlessness and constant overactivity of the mind.
Study author Ali Kandeger and her colleagues sought to explore whether excessive mind wandering, combined with decreased mindfulness, might mediate the relationship between ADHD and anxiety/depression symptoms. Mindfulness is a mental state characterized by non-judgmental awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences in the present moment. Some people naturally tend to be more mindful, a trait known as trait mindfulness.
The study included 159 adults with ADHD who were admitted to the Adult Neurodevelopmental Disorder Clinic at Selçuk University, 57% of whom were women. Of the participants, 21% had a history of substance use.
They completed assessments of ADHD symptom severity (using the Adult ADHD Severity Rating Scale), anxiety and depression (using the Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale), proneness to excessive mind wandering (measured by the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale), rumination (using the Ruminative Response Scale), and mindfulness (assessed by the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory). Rumination is the repetitive and passive focus on negative thoughts or distressing situations, often resulting in prolonged emotional distress and difficulty moving forward.
The results showed that individuals with more severe ADHD symptoms also tended to have more severe symptoms of depression and anxiety, a greater tendency toward excessive mind wandering, a higher propensity for rumination, and lower trait mindfulness.
The researchers tested a statistical model proposing that ADHD symptoms lead to more excessive mind wandering, rumination, and lower mindfulness, which in turn exacerbate depression and anxiety symptoms. Their findings indicated that this pattern of relationships is plausible and that these characteristics may fully explain the link between ADHD and depression/anxiety.
“Our study unveiled a positive association between ADHD symptoms and anxiety/depression severity mediated by increased EMW [excessive mind wandering], rumination, and decreased trait mindfulness in adults with ADHD. Our findings highlight promising specific targets (e.g., EMW, rumination) in the treatment of comorbid conditions such as anxiety and depression as well as the importance of treatment of core symptoms in adults with ADHD.”, study authors concluded.
The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between ADHD and anxiety/depression. However, it should be noted that the design of the study does not allow any definitive cause-and-effect inferences to be derived from the results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2940) Excessive mind wandering, rumination, and mindfulness mediate the relationship between ADHD symptoms and anxiety and depression in adults with ADHD,” was authored by Ali Kandeger, Şerife Odabas Ünal, Muhammed Tugrul Ergün, and Emine Yavuz Ataslar.

(https://www.psypost.org/are-you-a-victim-of-gaslighting-new-tool-helps-identify-manipulative-behaviors-in-relationships/) Are you a victim of gaslighting? New tool helps identify manipulative behaviors in relationships
Sep 10th 2024, 08:00

A recent study, published in the (https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075241266942) Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, introduces a new tool designed to measure gaslighting in romantic relationships. The Gaslighting Relationship Exposure Inventory (GREI) consists of 11 items and was found to be a reliable and valid measure for both men and women across two different cultural samples—Israel and the United States. The study also highlights that exposure to gaslighting is closely related to psychological abuse and can contribute to mental health issues, such as depression, while also negatively affecting relationship quality.
Gaslighting is a form of manipulation in which one person makes another doubt their own perceptions, memories, or reality. In the context of romantic relationships, gaslighting can involve a partner repeatedly invalidating their partner’s experiences. They might deny that certain events took place, accuse their partner of overreacting, or suggest their partner is confused or mistaken. Over time, this manipulative behavior can erode the gaslightee’s confidence and self-trust, leading to feelings of disorientation and emotional distress.
Gaslighting is particularly harmful because it can make victims question their sense of reality. The subtle nature of gaslighting often leaves victims unaware of the manipulation for long periods. The authors behind the new research sought to provide a scientifically validated tool that can reliably measure the extent of gaslighting exposure in intimate relationships. Until now, there has been a shortage of such tools, hindering both research on the subject and efforts to support those affected by it.
“Our interest in this topic stems from our shared interest in relationship dynamics and the intriguing complexity of gaslighting. We were particularly motivated to examine the impact of gaslighting in comparison to other forms of abuse,” said study author Tair Tager-Shafrir of The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College.
“Many people often perceive gaslighting as a less harmful form of abuse due to its everyday nature and seemingly less overt manifestation. However, our research revealed that this type of abuse has very significant negative effects, no less impactful than other forms of psychological abuse. We felt it was crucial to investigate this often misunderstood form of abuse and its consequences.”
To develop and validate the GREI, the researchers conducted two studies involving participants from Israel and the United States, all of whom were currently in romantic relationships. The sample for the first study included 509 Israeli adults, while the second study involved 395 participants from the United States.
In both studies, participants were asked to complete an online survey that included the 11-item GREI, which was developed based on extensive literature on gaslighting. The GREI items reflected key aspects of gaslighting behavior, such as denying events that occurred, making the partner doubt their memory, and minimizing or dismissing the partner’s feelings. Respondents rated the frequency with which these behaviors occurred on a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always).
In addition to the GREI, participants completed other established questionnaires to measure their experiences of intimate partner violence, mental health, and relationship satisfaction. Specifically, the study used the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2) to measure physical assault, psychological abuse, and economic control in relationships. The researchers also measured depression using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and relationship quality using the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS-7). These additional measures allowed the researchers to examine how gaslighting exposure was related to other forms of abuse, mental health outcomes, and the overall quality of the relationship.
The researchers first tested the GREI for reliability, meaning they examined whether the tool consistently measured gaslighting behaviors across different participants. They found that the GREI was highly reliable, with strong internal consistency across both samples.
Next, they conducted statistical analyses to assess the validity of the GREI—whether it was accurately measuring the construct of gaslighting and distinguishing it from other related behaviors. The results showed that gaslighting exposure, as measured by the GREI, was strongly correlated with psychological abuse, supporting its convergent validity. At the same time, gaslighting had weaker correlations with other forms of abuse, such as physical assault and economic control, suggesting that the GREI was capturing a distinct form of psychological manipulation.
The researchers found that participants who experienced more gaslighting reported higher levels of depression and lower relationship quality, even after accounting for other forms of intimate partner violence. This suggests that gaslighting has distinct and harmful effects on an individual’s emotional well-being, above and beyond other abusive behaviors.
“One of the central issues with gaslighting is the difficulty victims face in identifying and recognizing it as a form of abuse,” Tager-Shafrir told PsyPost. “The fact that it’s challenging for the victim to define their experience as abusive makes it even more painful and damaging. We believe it’s crucial for people to understand and recognize gaslighting so they can identify it in their own experiences and seek help when needed.”
“Our inventory is primarily designed for research purposes and not for clinical diagnosis. However, it can provide the general public with a broad picture of what it means to experience gaslighting, offering insights into the behaviors and patterns associated with this form of abuse.”
Interestingly, the study also found that men reported experiencing more gaslighting than women in both the Israeli and U.S. samples, challenging the common perception that gaslighting primarily affects women. However, the researchers cautioned against drawing definitive conclusions, as this finding may reflect differences in how men and women perceive and report gaslighting behaviors.
“We were surprised to find that men reported experiencing more gaslighting than women in our study,” Tager-Shafrir said. “This unexpected result led us to consider two possibilities. First, it’s possible that in everyday situations, women might use more subtle forms of non-physical aggression. Second, we hypothesized that if we were to conduct this study with a clinical sample, we might see the opposite gender differences.”
The researchers also note that their sample was not representative of all populations. In particular, certain groups, such as people with disabilities or ethnic minorities, were underrepresented. This means that the results may not be fully generalizable to these populations, and future research should aim to include a more diverse range of participants.
Despite these limitations, the GREI represents a significant advancement in the study of gaslighting. Future research could build on this work by examining the long-term effects of gaslighting on mental health and relationship outcomes. Additionally, researchers could explore whether different types of gaslighting—such as mild vs. severe forms—have different impacts on victims.
 

The Gaslighting Relationship Exposure Inventory

Please rate how often the following statements are true regarding your relationship with your partner:

My partner makes me doubt things I said.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me think that everything I do is wrong.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner often denies saying things that I remember him or her saying.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me think that I don’t understand situations in our relationship.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me question my memory about things that happened between us.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me feel like I’m in the wrong.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me feel like I’m impossible to get along with.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me think that I don’t understand him or her.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me think that I’m distorting things.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner makes me think that I’m blowing things out of proportion.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

My partner often accuses me of all kinds of things.
*

 Never

 Rarely

 Sometimes

 Often

 Always

Submit

The Gaslighting Relationship Exposure Inventory (GREI) is intended for research purposes only and is not designed to diagnose or replace professional mental health evaluations or clinical assessments. While the GREI provides insights into gaslighting behaviors within romantic relationships, it should not be used as a definitive measure of abuse or psychological harm.
If you believe you are experiencing emotional manipulation or abuse, it is important to seek support from a qualified mental health professional or counselor. The GREI is not a substitute for professional advice, therapy, or intervention. Individual experiences of gaslighting may vary, and the results of this inventory should be considered alongside a broader understanding of relationship dynamics and emotional health.
The study, “(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02654075241266942) The gaslighting relationship exposure inventory: Reliability and validity in two cultures,” was authored by Tair Tager-Shafrir, Ohad Szepsenwol, Maayan Dvir, and Osnat Zamir

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-observe-intriguing-brain-activity-patterns-in-elite-athletes/) Scientists observe intriguing brain activity patterns in elite athletes
Sep 10th 2024, 06:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108974) Neuropsychologia suggests that Olympic-level athletes in closed-skill sports use different brain strategies compared to non-athletes during tasks involving working memory and action inhibition. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers found that these athletes showed greater activation in brain regions associated with stable, repetitive task demands, while non-athletes showed stronger activity in areas involved in adjusting to rapidly changing situations.
The researchers were interested in how different types of sports training might affect the brain’s executive functions. Executive functions refer to the cognitive processes that help us manage and regulate behavior to achieve goals, including working memory and action inhibition. Working memory is responsible for temporarily holding and managing information needed to complete tasks, while action inhibition allows us to stop habitual responses when necessary.
Previous studies have shown that athletes in dynamic, unpredictable sports—such as soccer or volleyball—tend to outperform non-athletes in tasks involving action inhibition. These sports, called “open-skill” sports, require athletes to make quick decisions in fast-changing environments.
In contrast, closed-skill sports like rowing or synchronized swimming take place in stable, predictable settings. Athletes in these sports follow fixed routines with less need for constant adaptation. Although it’s well-documented that open-skill athletes excel at tasks requiring rapid responses, less is known about how closed-skill athletes perform on similar tasks. The new study aimed to fill that gap by comparing the brain activity of Olympic-level closed-skill athletes to non-athletes during working memory and action inhibition tasks.
“I was a competitive swimmer in Taiwan and spent years training rigorously, often for two to three hours a day, perfecting drills and honing my underwater techniques. My personal experience sparked an interest in understanding how physical training could be optimized,” said study author (https://khub.nthu.edu.tw/researcherProfile?uuid=34682b2a-f285-42ce-99b0-2b2dc90fe564) Zai-Fu Yao, an assistant professor in the Interdisciplinary Program at the College of Education at National Tsing Hua University.
“During my undergraduate studies, I came across the book Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain by John J. Ratey, MD, which intrigued me further about the relationship between physical performance and brain function. I started exploring how the brain, through processes like plasticity, adapts to facilitate motor skill improvement and memory retention. This led me to the field of cognitive neuroscience, where tools like brain imaging reveal the intricate connections between brain activity and behavior.”
“As I delved deeper into cognitive neuroscience, I discovered the concept of brain plasticity—how the brain’s structure and function are shaped by experience,” Yao explained. “This led me to wonder: if Olympic athletes undergo such extensive, high-level training, how does it impact their brain circuitry? Olympic athletes, with their unparalleled levels of experience and specialized training, seemed like the perfect group to study.”
“Professor Vincent Walsh’s commentary in Current Biology further reinforced this idea, suggesting that sports might represent the brain’s most complex challenge. Studying elite athletes offers a unique opportunity to explore the relationship between brain and behavior in those performing at the highest levels of human ability.”
For their study, the researchers recruited 14 elite closed-skill athletes, all national champions or international competitors in various rowing disciplines, and 14 non-athlete controls matched for gender, age, and education. All participants underwent fMRI brain scanning while completing two tasks: a working memory task and an action inhibition task.
In the working memory task, participants viewed a set of rectangles on a screen. After a brief delay, they were asked whether one of the rectangles had changed its orientation. This task was designed to test visuospatial working memory, which is the ability to remember and manipulate visual information in space. Participants’ accuracy was recorded, and the brain regions activated during the task were analyzed using fMRI.
The action inhibition task required participants to respond as quickly as possible to a stimulus—such as determining whether a face was male or female—unless a stop signal was presented. If the stop signal appeared, participants had to inhibit their response. This task tested their ability to override an automatic response when cued.
Interestingly, the behavioral results—the actual task performance—showed no significant differences between the athletes and non-athletes in either working memory or action inhibition. Both groups performed similarly in terms of accuracy and reaction times. However, when researchers looked at brain activity, a more complex picture emerged.
During the working memory task, the closed-skill athletes showed stronger activation in brain areas involved in maintaining steady, repetitive information, such as the fusiform gyrus and superior parietal lobule. These regions are responsible for encoding and managing visual and spatial information. Non-athletes, on the other hand, showed more activity in the frontal regions of the brain, which are associated with monitoring and adjusting to changing situations.
In the action inhibition task, a similar pattern was observed. The athletes had stronger activation in the posterior cingulate cortex and the precuneus, regions linked to internally focused tasks and maintaining attention. Non-athletes showed stronger activation in frontal areas associated with stopping an action, which suggests that they were more engaged in managing sudden changes.
“I was initially surprised by the distinct neural circuitry differences between the Olympic athletes and the control group, even though we didn’t observe significant behavioral differences,” Yao told PsyPost. “I had expected the brain activity to be more similar given the lack of clear performance differences. However, despite the small sample size, we did notice trends where the athletes seemed to perform slightly better, suggesting that with a larger sample, those trends might become statistically significant.”
“What also stood out to me was that while many behavioral studies on athletes consistently show differences in action control and inhibition tasks, we found that working memory—a cognitive skill not directly tied to their specific sports—was linked to different patterns of brain activation. This suggests that even though their sport may not rely heavily on working memory, years of systematic training still impact how their brains handle cognitive tasks.”
These findings suggest that closed-skill athletes may develop specialized brain strategies that focus on the stable, predictable aspects of their sport. Their brains appear to emphasize steady attention and coordination over rapid adjustments to changing conditions. In contrast, non-athletes—who are not trained to handle highly repetitive tasks—may rely more on areas of the brain involved in adapting to new or sudden challenges.
“Our research shows that Olympic athletes, like rowers and synchronized swimmers, have unique brain patterns when they use memory or stop themselves from acting quickly,” Yao explained. “Even though they didn’t perform much differently from non-athletes in the tasks, their brains were working in different ways, likely due to years of intense training. This highlights how physical training not only strengthens the body but also changes how the brain operates, making athletes more efficient in handling certain challenges. The big takeaway is that physical training doesn’t just strengthen muscles—it also changes the brain, influencing how we think, plan, and control actions!”
But the study, like all research, has some limitations.
“The small sample size is a big limitation, but it’s tough to avoid when studying such a rare group like Olympic athletes,” Yao noted. “We did our best to match controls in terms of age, education, and general physical activity, but a larger sample would give clearer results. Another thing to consider is that we only looked at a few cognitive tasks, and athletes might show differences in other areas that we didn’t measure.”
“Also, while fMRI tracks brain activity through blood flow, it would be useful to include other factors like heart rate and fitness levels since these could affect the brain’s response. Exploring more types of sports, like comparing open-skill (dynamic) and closed-skill (static) athletes, would also give us a better idea of how different training shapes the brain.”
The study raises questions about the long-term impact of closed-skill sports on brain function. While this research focused on brain activity during specific tasks, it would be interesting to explore how this heightened activity in certain brain regions affects athletes’ performance in real-world settings, both during and after their athletic careers. Longitudinal studies tracking athletes over time, including after retirement, would be valuable in understanding how these cognitive adaptations evolve and whether they persist or change.
“I think it would be really exciting to build a brain imaging and data bank for athletes,” Yao told PsyPost. “My goal is to track young athletes over time, collecting information about their brain activity, genetics, and how their bodies change—both during training and when they’re competing on big stages like the Olympics. Using real-time cameras and tech to monitor their vital signs during competitions and linking that to their actual performance would be amazing.”
“Even more, I’d love to follow these athletes into retirement to see how their brains change after they stop competing. These are people who have pushed human performance to the limit, and studying them could tell us a lot about how their brains age. We know that exercise can help prevent cognitive decline, but we don’t know how that plays out for elite athletes once they stop training. Do they age differently? Do they keep their cognitive edge? Or do they face bigger challenges? These are fascinating questions that would take a lot of time, effort, and collaboration—but it’s a dream project that could offer huge insights.”
The study, “(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0028393224001891) Olympic team rowers and team swimmers show altered functional brain activation during working memory and action inhibition,” was authored by Zai-Fu Yao, Ilja G. Sligte, and Richard Ridderinkhof.

(https://www.psypost.org/violent-pornography-viewers-show-higher-rates-of-sexual-aggression-sexism-and-psychopathy/) Violent pornography viewers show higher rates of sexual aggression, sexism, and psychopathy
Sep 9th 2024, 18:00

A recent study published in (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2024-67583-001) Psychology of Violence has shed light on the connection between pornography consumption and sexual aggression among men in the United States. The researchers identified three distinct patterns of pornography use, with one group—those who viewed violent pornography—showing higher rates of sexual aggression, acceptance of harmful myths about rape, hostility toward women, casual sex, psychopathy, and emotional regulation difficulties. The findings help clarify the relationship between different types of pornography and sexual aggression, a topic that has sparked debate in recent years.
Concerns about the potential link between pornography and sexual aggression have been a longstanding issue. The rise of internet pornography has given users easy access to violent and degrading content, which some fear may influence harmful behaviors. Previous studies have produced inconsistent results regarding the connection between pornography exposure and sexual aggression, with some research finding strong correlations and others finding only weak or no associations.
The inconsistency may be due to the fact that most research has examined pornography use as a single, general category, rather than distinguishing between types of content. For example, some studies have found that violent pornography is more strongly linked to sexual aggression than nonviolent pornography. To resolve these discrepancies, the present study aimed to use a more nuanced approach. The researchers sought to examine patterns of pornography consumption across different types of content and determine how those patterns were related to sexual aggression and its risk factors.
The study was conducted among 491 men in the United States, who were recruited through an online platform. The average age of the participants was 30 years, and most identified as White or European American, though the sample also included men of African American, Hispanic, and Asian American backgrounds. To participate, individuals needed to be 18 years or older and report being male.
Participants completed an online questionnaire that asked them about their pornography viewing habits. Specifically, they were asked how often they watched pornography, how long they typically spent watching it, and what types of content they viewed. The content was categorized into several types, including nonviolent images or films, degrading films, and violent films. Participants who did not view pornography were given a score of zero on all content-related questions.
In addition to questions about pornography, participants were asked about their experiences with sexual aggression. This was assessed using a survey that asked participants to report how often they had engaged in different forms of sexual aggression, such as coercing a partner into sex or using physical force. The survey also measured attitudes toward rape myths—false beliefs that justify or minimize sexual violence, such as blaming victims for their own assault.
Other variables included hostile masculinity, which reflects distrust and hostility toward women, and casual sex, or attitudes toward impersonal sexual relationships. Finally, the researchers assessed levels of psychopathy and difficulties in regulating emotions, which are known to be associated with higher rates of aggression.
The researchers used a statistical technique called latent profile analysis to identify distinct patterns of pornography use. This technique allows researchers to group individuals based on similarities in their responses, identifying patterns that might not be apparent when looking at individual variables alone.
The study revealed three distinct profiles of pornography use among the participants: infrequent pornography viewers, average pornography viewers, and violent pornography viewers.

Infrequent pornography viewers (23% of the sample) reported low levels of all types of pornography consumption. This group watched pornography rarely, if at all.
Average pornography viewers (62% of the sample) reported moderate levels of pornography use. This group tended to view nonviolent pornography regularly, with some exposure to degrading content but little exposure to violent pornography.
Violent pornography viewers (15% of the sample) stood out due to their high levels of exposure to degrading and violent pornography. They also spent the most time watching pornography overall.

When the researchers examined the links between these profiles and sexual aggression, they found stark differences. The group of violent pornography viewers had significantly higher levels of sexual aggression compared to both the average and infrequent viewers. They were also more likely to accept rape myths, display hostile attitudes toward women, endorse casual sex, exhibit psychopathic traits, and struggle with emotional regulation.
Interestingly, the frequency of pornography use alone was not a reliable predictor of sexual aggression. Although violent pornography viewers did tend to watch more pornography overall, it was the type of content—especially exposure to violent and degrading material—that seemed to be the critical factor associated with sexual aggression and related behaviors.
This suggests that simply asking how often someone watches pornography may not provide a complete picture of the risks involved. The content of what they are watching matters just as much, if not more.
But the study, like all research, has some limitations. For instance, the sample consisted largely of White or European American men living in the United States. This limits the generalizability of the findings to other racial or ethnic groups, as well as men from different cultural contexts or countries. Future research should aim to replicate the study with more diverse populations to see whether the findings hold true across different groups.
Another limitation is that the study was cross-sectional, meaning that it only measured pornography use and sexual aggression at a single point in time. As a result, it cannot determine whether pornography use causes sexual aggression, or if men who are already predisposed to aggression are more likely to seek out violent pornography.
Longitudinal studies, which follow participants over time, are needed to address this question. These studies could help clarify the direction of the relationship between pornography and aggression, and identify any potential causal pathways.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000513) Pornography Exposure Profiles Differentiate Sexual Aggression and Its Risk Factors: A Person-Centered Approach,” was authored by Wenqi Zheng, Travis N. Ray, and Michele R. Parkhill.

(https://www.psypost.org/polarized-america-the-role-of-nationalist-rhetoric-in-trump-and-bidens-2020-campaigns/) Polarized America: The role of nationalist rhetoric in Trump and Biden’s 2020 campaigns
Sep 9th 2024, 16:00

The 2020 U.S. presidential election was a battleground not just for policy differences but for the very meaning of what it means to be American. A recent study published in Political Communication examined how then-President Donald Trump and then-candidate Joe Biden used nationalist rhetoric to portray competing visions of America’s identity.
Trump and Biden made explicit references to national identity throughout the 2020 campaign. Trump frequently spoke about protecting American history and culture, while Biden called his campaign a “battle for the soul of the nation.” Given the prominence of these themes, the researchers sought to analyze how each candidate defined and contested the meaning of American identity during this critical election.
To understand the nationalist themes in the 2020 campaign, the researchers focused on the candidates’ Twitter activity, a key platform for political communication. They collected over 4,300 tweets from Trump and Biden between June 20 and November 3, 2020, the final months leading up to the election.
The researchers employed a qualitative content analysis to systematically categorize the nationalist themes embedded in the tweets. They developed a framework based on two major traditions of nationalism: civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism.
Civic nationalism was coded when tweets emphasized inclusive liberal values, such as equality, diversity, and the rule of law, often referencing symbols like the Constitution and the Statue of Liberty. In contrast, ethnic nationalism was coded when tweets implied that American identity was tied to white, Christian heritage, often using coded language or references to Christian roots, or the defense of American borders and traditional values. This framework allowed them to trace how each candidate’s messaging drew from these distinct forms of nationalism.
In addition to identifying references to civic and ethnic nationalism, the researchers also coded the tweets for sentiment (positive, negative, or neutral) and other policy themes such as public health, immigration, law and order, and racial justice. This enabled them to analyze not only how often Trump and Biden referred to nationalist themes, but also how these references were used to frame other political issues.
The analysis revealed a significant use of nationalist rhetoric by both candidates, but in starkly different ways. Biden’s tweets leaned heavily on civic nationalism, with 90 percent of his nationalist-themed tweets invoking this tradition. He frequently portrayed his campaign as a fight to restore America’s core democratic values, such as equality, inclusion, and justice for all.
Biden’s messaging painted a picture of a diverse and inclusive America, where anyone who believes in these liberal ideals can belong. His tweets often referenced historical documents like the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, positioning himself as the defender of the country’s founding principles. He also connected this civic vision to contemporary issues, framing racial justice and the fight against systemic racism as part of America’s progress toward realizing its true identity.
Trump’s tweets, on the other hand, were deeply rooted in ethnic nationalism. About 88 percent of his nationalist rhetoric referred to this tradition. His messaging framed the election as a battle to protect America’s heritage, culture, and greatness from a range of perceived threats. Trump frequently invoked the idea of a “silent majority” of Americans—implicitly white and Christian—who felt under siege by internal and external forces such as immigrants, racial justice activists, and foreign powers like China.
Trump’s use of coded language, often referred to as “dog whistles,” was a key finding in the study. While he rarely mentioned race explicitly, his references to threats against suburban communities, radical leftists, and low-income housing implicitly played into anxieties about racial and cultural changes in the U.S.
The researchers also found that while Biden predominantly used positive sentiment in his nationalist rhetoric—emphasizing hope, unity, and the potential for the nation to heal—Trump’s nationalist tweets were more likely to express negative sentiment. He portrayed the election as a do-or-die moment for America’s survival, warning of chaos, destruction, and decline if Biden were to win. This contrast in sentiment highlights the different emotional appeals each candidate made to their base: Biden appealed to a hopeful vision of America’s future, while Trump used fear and anger to mobilize his supporters.
Both candidates also used nationalist rhetoric to portray their opponent as an existential threat to the country’s identity. Biden framed Trump as an anti-American force threatening to destroy the nation’s liberal foundations. In contrast, Trump depicted Biden as a puppet of radical leftists and globalists who would dismantle traditional American values and leave the country vulnerable to foreign adversaries and internal decay. This mutual framing of each other as un-American was a central theme in their campaigns and contributed to what the researchers termed “nationalist polarization,” where political opponents are cast as fundamentally outside the national community.
“The overt embrace of the competing visions of national identity is a worrying development in the context of increasing political polarization and debates over democratic backsliding in America,” the researchers said. Unlike policy debates that can be addressed through reason and cost-benefit analysis, national identity is tied to culture and emotions, making it difficult to resolve through rational discourse.
The framing of political opponents as a danger to the nation “has potentially serious consequences for American democracy,” the researchers added, as it suggests that a victory for the other side threatens the country’s fundamental identity. “In short, there first needs to be a shared definition of the ‘people’ in order to have ‘rule by the people’… It is this shared and widely accepted idea that democratic institutions are controlled by, and represent, the people qua nation that grants them legitimacy. If elections cleave over the very definition of who ‘we’ are, then there is a risk that the losing side will not recognize the winning candidate’s legitimacy.”
The events of January 6, 2020, and the challenges to Biden’s legitimacy reflect the dangerous consequences of such nationalist polarization, the researchers said.
The study, “(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2023.2291150) The Battle for the Soul of the Nation: Nationalist Polarization in the 2020 American Presidential Election and the Threat to Democracy,” was authored by Eric Taylor Woods, Alexandre Fortier-Chouinard, Marcus Closen, Catherine Ouellet, and Robert Schertzer.

(https://www.psypost.org/squats-on-unstable-surfaces-push-your-brain-as-well-as-your-body-study-finds/) Squats on unstable surfaces push your brain as well as your body, study finds
Sep 9th 2024, 14:00

A study in Germany found that individuals need to pay more attention to their actions when performing squats on an unstable surface compared to doing the same exercises on a stable surface. Performing squats on a stable surface reduced participants’ performance on a simultaneous cognitive task by 9%, while doing them on an unstable surface resulted in a 14% decrease in cognitive task performance. The study was published in the (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41465-023-00279-6) Journal of Cognitive Enhancement.
Resistance exercises are physical activities designed to improve muscle strength and endurance by working against a force or weight. Common forms of resistance include free weights, resistance bands, or body weight, such as in push-ups or squats. These exercises target specific muscle groups by creating tension that the muscles must overcome, leading to increased muscle mass and strength over time. Resistance exercises can also enhance bone density and boost metabolism.
Studies suggest that physical exercise may also improve cognitive and executive functioning. This could be particularly beneficial to older adults, potentially even offering some protection against age-related cognitive decline. However, for this effect to occur, it is likely that the exercises need to be cognitively stimulating—requiring mental effort in addition to physical exertion. Researchers are therefore interested in developing exercise regimens that impose cognitive demands as well as physical ones. Studies have shown that “mindless” aerobic and resistance exercises, which put little demand on cognition, may offer limited benefits to executive and cognitive functioning.
Study authors Lisa Claußen and Claudia Braun wanted to investigate whether performing squats on unstable surfaces increases the attention required to perform them compared to doing squats on stable surfaces. Their hypothesis was that more attention would be required to perform squats on an unstable surface than on a stable one.
Squats are a compound exercise that involves bending the knees and lowering the hips from a standing position, then returning to standing. This exercise trains lower-body muscles such as the quadriceps, hamstrings, and glutes. Squats can be performed without carrying additional weight, or by using weights such as dumbbells held in the hands or placed on other parts of the body.
The study included 57 older adults and 17 younger adults. In the older group, there were 26 females, and in the younger group, 7 females. Older participants were in their 60s and 70s, while younger participants were in their 20s.
Before starting the study, participants completed several screening assessments to ensure that performing physical exercises did not pose a health risk and to verify that they were free from neurological and psychological disorders. These assessments included the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, the Fall Efficacy Scale-International, and the Geriatric Depression Scale. Fourteen older adults were excluded from the study because dumbbell squats were too challenging for them.
During their first visit to the lab, participants underwent pretesting to familiarize themselves with the tasks they would perform—dumbbell squats and the Stroop task. The Stroop task is a cognitive test where individuals must name the color of a word’s font while ignoring the word itself. This creates a conflict when the word spells a different color (e.g., the word “red” printed in blue ink), requiring increased attention to provide the correct response. It is used to assess attention, or the participants’ ability to focus on relevant information while ignoring distractions.
During this initial visit, the researchers also adjusted the weights of the dumbbells each participant would use in the main testing session, based on participants’ physical strength. Participants performed squats either on an even surface (stable condition) or on the flat side of a Bosu® Balance Trainer (unstable surface).
Two days later, participants returned to the lab for the main testing session. They first completed a session in which they performed squats and the Stroop task separately. This was followed by a dual-task session where participants performed the Stroop task and squats at the same time, both on stable and unstable surfaces. Afterward, they again performed the two tasks separately. Each task lasted 30 seconds, with at least two minutes of rest between tasks and five minutes of rest between the single-task and dual-task sessions.
During analysis, the researchers excluded data from an additional 26 participants, whose data were deemed invalid due to improper squats or large response errors. This left a final sample of 13 young adults and 17 older adults.
The results showed that reaction times in the Stroop task increased significantly when participants performed it while doing squats compared to when they did the Stroop task alone. This indicates that performing squats consumes a considerable amount of a person’s attentional resources. Performing squats on an unstable surface further reduced Stroop task performance, with a 9% decrease in performance on a stable surface and a 14% decrease on an unstable surface.
“Our study found attentional resources while squatting exercises to be increased by surface instability. This finding is considered to emerge from increased perceptual load for both young and older adults. Therefore, unstable devices and free weights could provide a means to raise cognitive demands during resistance training,” the study authors concluded.
The study highlights the increased attention required when performing squats on an unstable surface. However, the researchers found no differences between older and younger participants in the attention required for this exercise (i.e., the performance decrease on the Stroop task during squats), which was unexpected. A likely explanation is that the group of older adults was highly selected, as many of the already preselected older participants were excluded from the analysis due to performance challenges.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-023-00279-6) Challenge Not Only to the Muscles—Surface Instability Shifts Attentional Demands in Young and Older Adults While Performing Resistance Exercise,” was authored by Lisa Claußen and Claudia Braun.

(https://www.psypost.org/this-communication-pattern-is-linked-to-relationship-dissatisfaction-and-sexual-distress/) This communication pattern is linked to relationship dissatisfaction and sexual distress
Sep 9th 2024, 12:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2024.2386997) The Journal of Sex Research has found that couples who exhibit a communication pattern known as demand-withdrawal during discussions about sexual conflicts experience lower levels of relationship and sexual satisfaction. The study also found that these couples tend to report higher sexual distress and a decline in their relationship satisfaction over time.
The researchers were interested in exploring how couples communicate during sexual conflicts, a topic that has been studied less thoroughly compared to other types of relationship conflicts. Communication about sexual problems is often more anxiety-inducing than discussions about other issues, and it can be particularly challenging for couples to navigate.
Sexual conflicts tend to evoke stronger negative emotions, such as shame, anger, or fear, making it harder for partners to openly discuss and resolve issues. Poor sexual communication is linked to lower levels of intimacy, relationship satisfaction, and overall psychological well-being.
While sexual communication has been studied in various ways—such as the frequency and quality of discussions—specific communication patterns during sexual conflicts, like demand-withdrawal, have not received as much attention. Demand-withdrawal communication occurs when one partner pushes to discuss a problem, while the other avoids or disengages from the conversation.
Previous studies have shown that demand-withdrawal communication negatively affects relationship intimacy and satisfaction. However, no prior research has specifically looked at how this communication pattern impacts couples when the conflict is sexual in nature. The researchers conducted their new study to fill that gap.
“I know from my clinical experience that conversations about sex can be fraught with more intense emotions compared to other relationship topics, making effective communication especially challenging. I was interested in how this common pattern of ‘demand’ and ‘withdrawal’ when discussing sexual problems might relate to couples’ sexual and relationship satisfaction,” said study author (https://natalieorosen.com/) Natalie O. Rosen, a registered psychologist and professor at Dalhousie University.
The researchers recruited 151 couples from two Canadian cities using online advertisements, posters, and word-of-mouth referrals. The participants were screened for eligibility, which required them to be at least 18 years old, fluent in either English or French, cohabiting with their partner for at least 12 months, and sexually active within the past year. Couples were excluded if one partner was pregnant, breastfeeding, or experiencing serious psychiatric or physical illness.
First, each participant completed an online survey to measure relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and sexual distress. One week later, the couples participated in a laboratory session where they engaged in four discussion tasks. The key discussion in this study focused on a sexual conflict—each couple had to talk about a significant sexual issue in their relationship. This topic was selected based on a questionnaire where participants ranked the sexual problems they considered most problematic. The researchers observed the couples during these discussions, recording their interactions to assess demand-withdrawal communication patterns.
The demand-withdrawal pattern was rated by independent coders who watched the video recordings of the couples’ discussions. These coders evaluated the extent to which one partner demanded engagement (such as pressuring the other to talk) and the other withdrew (such as becoming silent or avoiding the issue). The coders rated the presence of demand-withdrawal behavior on a five-point scale. Each couple’s overall demand-withdrawal score was calculated by averaging the individual scores of both partners.
The couples were followed up 12 months later, at which point they completed another survey to assess changes in their relationship and sexual well-being.
The researchers found that couples who displayed higher levels of demand-withdrawal during their sexual conflict discussions reported lower levels of relationship and sexual satisfaction at the time of the discussion (known as Time 1) and 12 months later (Time 2). These couples also reported higher levels of sexual distress at the time of the discussion, though the effect on sexual distress did not persist 12 months later.
“Couples who engage in a pattern of demand (one person exerts pressure to talk about a problem) and withdrawal (the other person becomes silent or acquiesces) when talking about sexual problems in their relationship also report lower sexual satisfaction, higher sexual distress, and lower relationship satisfaction,” Rosen told PsyPost. “If couples find themselves falling into this pattern of communication when faced with sexual problems, they might benefit from sex and couple therapy aimed at helping them work together in a more constructive way.”
Interestingly, the researchers found that higher levels of demand-withdrawal communication were associated with reduced relationship satisfaction over time. Couples who engaged in more demand-withdrawal behavior during their sexual conflict discussion experienced a decline in their relationship satisfaction over the following year. However, this communication pattern did not predict long-term changes in sexual satisfaction or distress.
“It was interesting that the demand-withdrawal pattern predicted a decrease in relationship satisfaction 12 months later, but not our sexual outcomes,” Rosen said. “It could be that this communication style is more important for shaping future relationship outcomes, but its influence on sexual outcomes is more proximal (i.e., more immediate rather than long-term).”
The results were consistent across men and women, indicating that the negative effects of demand-withdrawal communication were similar regardless of gender. The study did not find any significant gender differences in how this communication pattern affected relationship or sexual outcomes, though the researchers acknowledged that their sample size may have been too small to detect differences for individuals with gender identities other than men and women.
“We did not find any gender differences in our results, suggesting that the presence of demand-withdrawal was linked to relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and sexual distress, for all our participants in a similar manner,” Rosen explained. “However, we only examined gender effects for men and women due to sample size restrictions. It is possible that there are additional gender identities, expressions, and roles that might influence the generalizability of the findings.”
One limitation is the study’s sample, which consisted mostly of long-term, cohabiting, heterosexual couples who were not seeking treatment for relationship issues. “Our findings may not generalize to treatment-seeking individuals in newer relationships, additional cultures, and to those who do not identify as heterosexual,” Rosen noted.
Future research could build on these findings by exploring the emotional dynamics that arise during demand-withdrawal discussions about sexual conflicts. Understanding how couples regulate their emotions during these conversations could help identify ways to intervene and improve communication. Additionally, studies could investigate whether certain factors, such as personality traits, attachment styles, or relationship length, moderate the effects of demand-withdrawal on relationship and sexual outcomes.
The study, “(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224499.2024.2386997) Do Demand-Withdrawal Communication Patterns During Sexual Conflict Predict Couples’ Relationship Satisfaction, Sexual Satisfaction, and Sexual Distress? An Observational and Prospective Study,” was authored by Natalie O. Rosen, Justin P. Dubé, Myriam Bosisio, and Sophie Bergeron.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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