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(https://www.psypost.org/brain-ripples-play-a-key-role-in-solidifying-emotional-memories/) Brain ripples play a key role in solidifying emotional memories
Sep 1st 2024, 10:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44295-8) Nature Communications sheds light on why emotional memories are often more vivid and lasting than non-emotional ones. The research reveals that certain brain activities, known as “ripples,” play an important role in enhancing the storage and recall of emotional experiences.
By examining brain waves in patients undergoing epilepsy treatment, researchers found that emotional experiences increase specific brain activity in the amygdala, which in turn triggers ripple events in the hippocampus. These ripples help replay and strengthen the memory, making it more likely to be remembered later.
“Everyone knows that emotionally charged memories tend to be more memorable, but the exact neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon remain unclear. Understanding these mechanisms could not only deepen our scientific knowledge but also offer new approaches to treating memory and emotion-related disorders, such as PTSD,” said study author Haoxin Zhang, a neuroscientist and bioengineer at the University of California, Irvine.
The researchers conducted their study with a unique group of participants: seven patients with epilepsy who were undergoing pre-surgical monitoring. These patients had electrodes implanted in their brains to help locate the source of their seizures, providing the researchers with a rare opportunity to directly record brain activity from the amygdala and hippocampus.
The experiment was designed to test how the brain responds to emotionally charged stimuli. Participants were shown a series of images that varied in emotional intensity, from neutral to highly arousing. After viewing each image, they were asked to rate its emotional content as negative, neutral, or positive.
Later, participants were shown a mix of images they had seen before along with new ones and were asked to determine whether they had seen each image previously. This setup allowed the researchers to measure how well participants remembered the images and to correlate their memory performance with the recorded brain activity.
A key aspect of the study was the focus on ripple events in the brain. These ripples, recorded in the hippocampus, are brief but significant bursts of neural activity believed to play a role in reinforcing memories shortly after they are formed. The researchers specifically looked at ripple events occurring immediately after participants viewed each image, a period they referred to as the post-encoding phase. By analyzing these ripples, they aimed to determine whether their frequency and timing could predict how well an image would be remembered later.
As expected, participants were better at remembering emotionally charged images compared to neutral ones. Importantly, the researchers also found that this enhanced memory was closely linked to ripple events in the brain. After participants viewed an emotional image, there was increased activity in the amygdala, which seemed to trigger more frequent ripple events in the hippocampus.
“I was surprised to observe ripples occurring in the hippocampus while awake, as they have been predominantly reported during sleep in animal models,” Zhang told PsyPost.
These ripples were more common following emotional images, and their presence was predictive of how well the participant would remember the image later. In other words, the more ripples that occurred after seeing an emotional image, the more likely the participant was to recall it accurately.
Additionally, the timing of these ripple events was crucial. The researchers found that ripples occurring immediately after viewing the image (during the post-encoding period) were particularly important for strengthening the memory.
The researchers also observed that the activity in the amygdala and hippocampus during these ripples was coordinated, with the amygdala’s activity slightly preceding that of the hippocampus. This coordination was more pronounced for emotional images, suggesting a close collaboration between these two brain regions in enhancing the storage of emotional memories.
“We discovered that emotional experiences lead to increased reactivation in the amygdala, which then triggers more ripple events in the hippocampus, replaying the memory and enhancing it,” Zhang explained. “This study not only uncovers a new neurobiological mechanism explaining why emotional memories are so unforgettable but also offers potential therapeutic approaches. It suggests that enhancing memory might be possible by stimulating hippocampal ripples, and conversely, disrupting these ripples could help in treating PTSD by weakening unwanted emotional memories.”
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44295-8) Awake ripples enhance emotional memory encoding in the human brain,” was authored by Haoxin Zhang, Ivan Skelin, Shiting Ma, Michelle Paff, Lilit Mnatsakanyan, Michael A. Yassa, Robert T. Knight, and Jack J. Lin.

(https://www.psypost.org/dissatisfaction-with-penis-size-and-genital-appearance-tied-to-mental-health-issues-in-men/) Dissatisfaction with penis size and genital appearance tied to mental health issues in men
Sep 1st 2024, 08:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/13685538.2024.2363275) The Aging Male journal has revealed that as men’s self-perception of their genitals deteriorates, their susceptibility to depression and anxiety increases. The findings suggest that men who view their genital appearance negatively may experience significant mental health challenges, which in turn can affect their sexual function and overall quality of life.
Body image plays a important role in an individual’s mental and emotional well-being, influencing their self-esteem, social interactions, and sexual satisfaction. For many men, the size and appearance of their penis are intimately tied to their self-confidence and perceived sexual adequacy. Although extensive research has explored various aspects of body image and sexual satisfaction, the specific issue of genital self-perception in men remains under-examined.
Previous studies have highlighted the relationship between body image and mental health, showing that a negative perception of one’s body can lead to issues such as depression, anxiety, and sexual dysfunction. However, there has been limited research focusing specifically on how men’s perceptions of their genitalia might relate to these mental health outcomes. The researcher behind this study — Adil Emrah Sonbahar, a board certified urologist and sexologist at the Izmir Katip Çelebi University Atatürk Training and Research Hospital — sought to fill that gap by exploring the correlation between male genital self-perception, sexual functioning, and the prevalence of depression and anxiety.
“My special interest is sexual medicine, which led me to plan this study. In today’s changing world, people have begun to think about self-image and sexual performance more than before. When considering these issues, personal perception—how individuals view themselves—is very important,” explained Sonbahar.
The study was conducted at the Andrology outpatient clinic of Izmir Katip Çelebi University, where researchers recruited 75 male participants between March and June 2022. Participants were men who visited the clinic for various reasons, but those with a history of pelvic surgery, previous penis enlargement surgeries, known psychiatric disorders, or those who refused to participate were excluded from the study.
The average age of the participants was approximately 47 years old, with a body mass index (BMI) of around 28 kg/m². Most participants were married, and a significant portion were smokers. To measure genital self-perception, Sonbahar used the Male Genital Self Image Scale (MGSIS), a validated questionnaire that assesses how men perceive their genitalia. The scale consists of seven statements (e.g. “I am satisfied with the size of my genitals”) scored on a four-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating a more positive genital self-image.
In addition to the MGSIS, Sonbahar used several other measures. Sexual function was assessed using the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF), a 15-item questionnaire that evaluates different aspects of male sexual health. Mental health was assessed using the BECK Depression Inventory, a 21-item questionnaire that measures the severity of depression, and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, which assesses anxiety levels.
The researchers also conducted physical measurements of the participants’ penis size. A single urologist measured both the flaccid and stretched penis lengths, as well as the penile circumference, under standardized conditions to ensure accuracy.
There was a positive correlation between penis size (both flaccid and stretched) and genital self-image scores. Men with larger penis sizes tended to have a more positive perception of their genitals. Conversely, men with smaller penis sizes were more likely to report a poor genital self-image.
The study found that men with a more negative genital self-image also reported poorer sexual functioning. Specifically, these men had lower scores in erectile function, sexual satisfaction, and overall sexual satisfaction. The findings suggest that men who are dissatisfied with their genitalia may experience more significant challenges in their sexual lives, including difficulty achieving and maintaining erections and lower overall satisfaction with sexual activity.
Perhaps most notably, the study uncovered a strong relationship between poor genital self-image and increased levels of depression and anxiety. Men who had lower genital self-image scores were more likely to score higher on both the Beck Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. This suggests that dissatisfaction with one’s genitalia is not just a superficial concern but is deeply tied to broader issues of mental health.
“I was wondering about the rate of depression in those with a negative sexual perception, but the findings were more than expected,” Sonbahar told PsyPost. “The average person should understand that ‘it is first of all in mind,'” he added, highlighting the crucial impact of subjective self-appraisals.
While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between male genital self-perception, mental health, and sexual function, there are several limitations that should be considered. One of the primary limitations is the relatively small sample size of 75 participants. Although the researchers ensured that the sample was sufficient to detect significant correlations, larger studies are needed to confirm and expand upon these findings. Additionally, the study only included heterosexual men, which limits the generalizability of the results.
“There should be more prospective studies about sexual perception not only in heterosexual men but also in all types of sexual orientations,” Sonbahar said. “Nowadays, there are a lot of genital plastic surgeries being done. Moreover, we are not sure that all the surgeries are necessarily beneficial as well. So I think while planning these kind of surgeries, a serious investigation must be scheduled not only for the success of surgeries but also for the happiness of the patients after the procedures.”
The study, “(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13685538.2024.2363275) The impact of male genital self-image on depression, anxiety and sexual functions,” was published online on June 10, 2024.

(https://www.psypost.org/autistic-adults-exhibit-unique-strengths-in-mental-imagery-study-finds/) Autistic adults exhibit unique strengths in mental imagery, study finds
Sep 1st 2024, 06:00

A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3192) Autism Research reveals that autistic individuals possess unique mental imagery abilities, with some aspects being superior and others being similar to those of non-autistic individuals.
Mental imagery, which is the ability to visualize objects and scenarios in the mind without external stimuli, plays a crucial role in various cognitive functions such as remembering past events and making decisions. Previous research has suggested that autistic individuals often perceive the world differently and might have enhanced perceptual abilities, leading researchers to hypothesize that many aspects of mental imagery abilities could also be superior.
Led by Clara Bled from the Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès in France, the study team sought to test this theory. The researchers recruited 44 autistic adults (aged 18 to 50 years old, 52% women) and 42 typical participants without a neurodevelopmental disorder (aged 21 to 47 years old, 52% women). They were subjected to four tasks designed to assess different stages of mental imagery: image generation, visual pattern maintenance, image scanning, and mental rotation.
In the image generation task, participants were asked to mentally generate a letter on a grid and determine if it passed over a specific point. Both autistic and typical individuals performed similarly in terms of accuracy and response time, indicating no significant difference in this aspect of mental imagery.
The visual pattern test, which assessed the ability to maintain visual patterns in short-term memory, revealed a notable difference. Participants were briefly presented with a matrix with some sections filled in black, and were instructed to reproduce this pattern to the best of their ability. Autistic participants demonstrated a significantly higher span, indicating better ability to hold mental images compared to their typical counterparts.
The image scanning test required participants to inspect mental images and determine if an arrow pointed to a previously seen dot. Specifically, a pattern of dots was presented, then removed and replaced with an arrow. Participants then indicated whether the arrow pointed to a location previously held by the dot. While typical participants’ response times varied with the distance to inspect, autistic participants were equally fast regardless of the distance.
In the mental rotation task, which involved mentally manipulating geometric figures made up of cubes, both groups performed equivalently in terms of accuracy and response time.
Bled and colleagues concluded, “Our findings support the hypothesis of typical or superior mental imagery abilities among autistic individuals. In a broader context, these results are in line with previous studies. Indeed, a more accurate and less top-down influenced (i.e., context-dependent) perception has been demonstrated in autistic individuals … [whom] may integrate the inducing context of information to a lesser extent. Thus, mental representations (i.e., mental images) in autism, like perception, may be more precise and context-independent.”
However, limitations are to be noted. For example, the authors acknowledged that the complexity of the protocol required participants to be of average or above-average intellectual functioning, which does not capture the entire autism spectrum.
The study, “(https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.3192?af=R) Visual mental imagery abilities in autism,” was authored by C. Bled, Q. Guillon, L. Mottron, I. Soulieres, and L. Bouvet.

(https://www.psypost.org/researchers-uncover-the-hidden-drivers-of-everyday-moral-courage/) Researchers uncover the hidden drivers of everyday moral courage
Aug 31st 2024, 14:00

New research published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12850) Journal of Personality highlights that dispositional self-efficacy significantly increases the likelihood of intervening against moral norm violations in everyday life, while moral disengagement decreases it.
Moral courage involves standing up against wrongdoing, even when it comes with personal risk. While past research has focused on extraordinary acts, such as whistleblowing, Anna Baumert and her colleagues turned their attention to everyday moral courage—intervening in common situations like harassment or dishonesty.
Despite frequent opportunities, people rarely intervene, leading to questions about what drives or inhibits this behavior. Previous studies suggest that cognitive factors, like a sense of responsibility and self-efficacy, as well as emotions like anger or fear, play a role. However, most research has been based on controlled or hypothetical scenarios. How do personality traits influence moral courage in real-world settings?
Participants represented a diverse cross-section of the German population, recruited through a quota-based sampling approach. They completed detailed self-report questionnaires designed to assess personality traits, with key traits including moral attentiveness, which reflects how often individuals notice and think about moral issues in daily life; dispositional self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s ability to handle challenges; and moral disengagement, which involves rationalizing or justifying unethical behavior.
Following this personality assessment, participants entered the experience sampling phase, which spanned seven days. During this period, they received two daily prompts via text or email, one in the morning and one in the evening, asking them to report any moral norm violations they had witnessed since the last prompt. If they observed a violation, they provided a detailed description of the incident and completed questions about their cognitive and emotional responses, including how responsible they felt, their sense of efficacy, and whether they experienced emotions like anger or fear.
The researchers were particularly focused on whether participants chose to intervene in these situations and how they did so. This method allowed the collection of a robust dataset, with 1,965 reports of norm violations from 678 participants who encountered at least one such situation during the study period.
The researchers found that dispositional self-efficacy is a key driver of moral courage in everyday life, with participants who scored higher in self-efficacy being significantly more likely to intervene when witnessing moral norm violations. Further, participants who felt a strong sense of responsibility were more likely to intervene. Conversely, moral disengagement acted as a significant barrier to intervention, as those who scored higher in moral disengagement were less inclined to act, primarily because they felt less responsible for addressing the wrongdoing.
Anger was found to be a powerful motivator, driving participants to take action against norm violations, likely because it is associated with a sense of injustice and a desire to correct wrongs. On the other hand, fear was a significant inhibitor of intervention, as participants who felt afraid were less likely to act, possibly due to concerns about the risks involved.
Interestingly, the overall intervention rate was 32%, indicating that moral courage, while present, is not always acted upon in everyday situations. This research underscores the importance of self-efficacy and emotional engagement in promoting moral courage in everyday situations. Understanding these processes can help develop interventions that foster moral courage in everyday contexts.
Of note is that the correlational nature of this study precludes causal conclusions.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12850) Personality processes of everyday moral courage”, was authored by Anna Baumert, Fabian Ezra Mentrup, Lisa Klümper, and Julia Sasse.

(https://www.psypost.org/bilinguals-perceive-shades-differently-based-on-which-language-they-are-using/) Bilinguals perceive shades differently based on which language they are using
Aug 31st 2024, 12:00

A recent study published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12645) Language Learning explores how bilingual individuals perceive colors differently based on the language they use at the moment. Researchers discovered that bilinguals who speak both Lithuanian and Norwegian perceive shades of blue differently depending on which language they are using.
Lithuanian has two distinct words for blue whereas Norwegian has only one word to describe all shades of blue. The study found that when bilingual participants engaged in a color discrimination task while using Lithuanian, they were quicker to differentiate between light and dark blue shades. However, this effect diminished when they performed the same task in Norwegian, suggesting that the language they used influenced their perception of color.
Previous studies have shown that language can affect how people categorize colors, but these effects are often subtle and context-dependent. The idea that our language might shape the way we perceive the world around us has fascinated scientists for decades. This study aimed to dig deeper into this phenomenon by focusing on bilinguals—people who regularly switch between two languages—and examining how their perception might change with the language they use.
“I became interested in this topic due to previous research on the unique cognitive experiences of bilingual individuals and how being bilingual might alter our perception of the world,” said study author (https://www.linkedin.com/in/akvile-sinkeviciute-265069152/) Akvile Sinkeviciute, a PhD student at Northeastern University London.
“Lithuanian has two distinct terms for light and dark blue (‘žydra’ and ‘mėlyna’), whereas Norwegian uses a single term (‘blå’) to cover both shades, which presents an intriguing linguistic difference that could influence the way we differentiate colors in our visual perception as well.”
“This difference in language structure provided a unique opportunity to explore how bilingualism might affect basic perceptual processes like colour discrimination. By studying bilinguals who regularly navigate between these two languages, we aimed to understand how living between two linguistic worlds might dynamically shape our sensory experiences.”
The study involved five separate experiments, each designed to probe the relationship between language and color perception.
In the first experiment, Lithuanian-Norwegian bilinguals were asked to perform a color discrimination task twice—once while using Lithuanian and once while using Norwegian. They were presented with three color chips at a time: one at the top and two at the bottom. Their task was to select which of the two bottom chips matched the top one. This experiment was designed to test whether using a language with different color terms would influence their speed and accuracy in distinguishing between colors.
In the second experiment, the researchers added a verbal interference task to see how cognitive load might affect color perception. Participants had to memorize and recall a series of random digits while performing the color discrimination task. The idea was to see if the extra mental effort of juggling numbers in a particular language would affect their ability to distinguish colors.
Experiments three and four involved monolingual Lithuanian and Norwegian speakers, respectively, who performed the same color discrimination task. These groups served as controls to see how individuals who only speak one language—either with two terms for blue or one—naturally discriminate between colors without the influence of a second language.
Finally, in the fifth experiment, all participants—bilinguals and monolinguals—completed the color discrimination task without any verbal interference, to establish a baseline for how well each group could distinguish between the shades of blue without any cognitive distractions.
When bilingual participants performed the task in Lithuanian, they were faster and more accurate in distinguishing between light and dark blue. This color category effect was strongest when there was no verbal interference, indicating that having two distinct color terms in Lithuanian sharpened their perception.
However, when the same participants switched to Norwegian, where only one word for blue exists, their ability to discriminate between the shades diminished. This suggests that the linguistic structure of Lithuanian, with its separate terms for light and dark blue, facilitated better color discrimination.
Monolingual Lithuanian speakers also showed a strong ability to distinguish between the colors, similar to the bilinguals when they used Lithuanian. In contrast, monolingual Norwegian speakers, who only had one word for blue, did not show the same level of discrimination. Their performance was similar to that of bilinguals when using Norwegian.
“Our study shows that the language we use can shape how we perceive colors, demonstrating the flexibility of cognitive processes,” Sinkeviciute told PsyPost. “Lithuanian-Norwegian bilinguals were quicker to distinguish between light and dark blue when thinking in Lithuanian, but this advantage disappeared when thinking in Norwegian. Similarly, monolingual Lithuanians, who have two words for blue, were faster at distinguishing shades of blue than monolingual Norwegians. This finding supports the idea that language can influence perception, even with a second language learned later in life.”
“We were particularly fascinated by how the language context could modulate visual perception within the same individuals. While we expected some influence, the finding that bilinguals’ color discrimination patterns resembled those of monolingual speakers depending on the language in use was striking. It showed that the impact of language on perception,i.e. perception of sensory input, is dynamic and can change in real-time, depending on which language is active.”
The study sheds light on the connection between language and perception. But, as with all research, there are some limitations to consider.
“The extent of language’s influence on perception may vary depending on an individual’s language proficiency or frequency of use, and future research should examine these variables to better understand the nuances of how language affects perception,” Sinkeviciute noted. “Additionally, multilinguals who speak three or more languages with differing numbers of linguistic labels for basic colors should also be studied.”
“Right now, I investigate intergenerational differences in color naming, examining how color vocabulary and perception vary with age,” she continued. “I aim to explore how physiological changes in the eye, as well as cognitive changes across the lifespan, affect these differences. After completing this research, I would like to extend my studies to explore how these intergenerational patterns might differ among multilingual individuals. Understanding these dynamics could provide deeper insights into the complex interplay between perceptual and cognitive processes in color vision and communication across different age groups and linguistic contexts.”
The new findings contribute to the ongoing conversation about linguistic relativity, showing that the words we use can have a tangible impact on our sensory experiences.
“Our research highlights the profound and dynamic influence of language on everyday cognitive processes, challenging the notion that perception is solely a sensory function,” Sinkeviciute said. “It suggests that language learning can enrich perceptual experiences, offering benefits that extend beyond mere communication. This insight is particularly valuable for understanding cognitive flexibility and adaptability in bilingual and multilingual individuals.”
The study, “(https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/lang.12645) Active Language Modulates Color Perception in Bilinguals,” was authored by Akvile Sinkeviciute, Julien Mayor, Mila Dimitrova Vulchanova, and Natalia Kartushina.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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