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(https://www.psypost.org/republicans-showed-more-hindsight-bias-than-democrats-for-bidens-win-in-the-2020-u-s-presidential-election/) Republicans showed more hindsight bias than Democrats for Biden’s win in the 2020 U.S. presidential election
Nov 5th 2024, 08:00

In a study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2024.2421400) Cognition & Emotion, we examined hindsight bias in the context of the 2020 U.S. presidential election. We found that Republicans, who were disappointed by Biden’s victory, showed more hindsight bias than Democrats, who were relatively happier with the electoral result.
Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe that one could have predicted an outcome after it has occurred. While prior research suggests that cognitive changes, such as memory decline, may increase hindsight bias in older adults, findings on the role of emotion have been mixed. Further, the intersection of age and emotion in influencing hindsight bias has been unexplored in real-world contexts.
Given the emotionally charged nature of the 2020 U.S. presidential election, with its outcomes perceived positively or negatively depending on political affiliation, Dr. Julia Spaniol and I examined how emotions might influence hindsight bias in younger and older adults.
Prior studies have suggested that negative emotions can increase hindsight bias as people reinterpret events to cope with disappointment. We investigated whether similar patterns would emerge in a real-world, politically significant event, where individuals had personal stakes in the outcome based on their political affiliations.
We recruited 272 participants through Amazon’s MTurk platform, split into younger (ages 18-34) and older (ages 59-84) adults. Participants indicated their political affiliation, selecting from Democrat, Republican, or Third Party, which served as a proxy for emotional response to the election, with the assumption that Democrats would feel positively about Biden’s win and Republicans would feel negatively.
They completed an estimation task shortly before the election, where they predicted the distribution of electoral votes for each presidential candidate, with their predictions summing to the total of 538 electoral votes. Following the election, participants returned approximately three weeks later for a second part of the study, in which they were asked to recall their original electoral predictions.
Hindsight bias was quantified using the “proximity index,” which compared the accuracy of participants’ initial predictions with their recollections post-election. In both parts of the study, participants rated their emotional responses to the election outcome, which served a manipulation check.
We found a relationship between political affiliation and hindsight bias, particularly concerning predictions for Biden’s electoral outcome. Participants who identified as Republicans, and for whom Biden’s win represented a negative emotional outcome, demonstrated more hindsight bias when recalling their initial estimates of Biden’s electoral votes compared to Democrats, who perceived Biden’s win positively. This pattern suggests that negative emotions can magnify hindsight bias.
Interestingly, this effect persisted across both younger and older adults. It could be that the high public visibility and repeated media coverage of the election might have reduced age-based differences in cognitive processing, leveling the playing field between younger and older adults, and thereby minimizing the usual age-related discrepancies in memory recall.
When examining the hindsight bias for Trump’s electoral outcome, we found no significant difference between political groups. This may be because the public primarily focused their attention and emotional response on the victorious candidate, Biden, rather than on Trump’s loss.
One limitation is that we used political affiliation as a proxy for emotional response, which may not fully capture the complexity of participants’ emotions regarding the election.
Hindsight bias is hard to escape—almost everyone experiences it at some point. This cognitive tendency leads us to believe that we “knew it all along” after an event’s outcome is known. While it can cloud judgment, hindsight bias sometimes serves a psychological purpose, helping us to manage disappointment and other negative emotions, like when an election outcome defies our expectations.
Recognizing the influence of hindsight bias can enhance our self-awareness, fostering intellectual humility and curiosity. It invites us to reflect on why our predictions occasionally fall short and to better understand the limits of our foresight.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2024.2421400) Emotional aftermath of the 2020 U.S. presidential election: a study of hindsight bias in younger and older adults”, was authored by Mane Kara-Yakoubian ((https://x.com/ManeYakoubian) @ManeYakoubian) and Julia Spaniol.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-uncover-intriguing-evolutionary-psychology-insights-by-studying-women-involved-in/) Scientists uncover intriguing evolutionary psychology insights by studying women involved in BDSM
Nov 5th 2024, 06:00

For many, preferences within BDSM may seem personal and unique, but a new study published in Deviant Behavior suggests that some submissive behaviors could serve a broader purpose in human relationships. Researchers found that women who consistently feel submissive both in sexual and romantic settings are more likely to pursue long-term commitments. These findings may reflect an evolutionary strategy, where hierarchical roles encourage loyalty and emotional investment, fostering stable relationships.
The research is rooted in evolutionary biology and psychology, which examine how certain behaviors and social dynamics may be adaptations that developed to improve survival and reproductive success. In this case, the researchers explored the idea that BDSM, which includes various practices involving consensual power exchange, could reflect ingrained human mating strategies. The researchers hypothesized that some BDSM preferences—particularly submissiveness—might align with broader evolutionary patterns.
Another driving factor for the research was the potential vulnerability of individuals with high submissiveness in relationships. Previous observations suggest that women who adopt submissive roles beyond sexual activities may have a heightened risk of remaining in exploitative relationships. By investigating these patterns, the researchers aimed not only to understand relationship dynamics in BDSM contexts but also to identify psychological or social factors that could support those at risk.
“I was an animal ethologist. We were interested in dominance hierarchy and animal welfare, and our goal was to provide a good life for animals,” said study author Eva Jozifkova, an associate professor at Jan Evangelista Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem.
“During my studies, I witnessed the difficulties faced by individuals who were deliberately misinformed about BDSM by other people with BDSM preferences and who were afraid to seek medical help because BDSM was classified as a mental disorder and sexologists did not have a good reputation among this subpopulation. Due to low English proficiency in the post-communist Czech Republic, there were not enough sources of information about the consensual practice of BDSM, which left individuals vulnerable to exploitation.”
“In addition, the topic was tabooed as a sexual disorder in society, and revealing one’s identity was risky for those with this preference,” Jozifkova explained. “I concluded that the future of animal care was assured due to the high quality of Czech ethology even without my work, but that something needed to be done about BDSM-related sexual preferences to reduce the possibility of psychological abuse, manipulation, blackmail, and partner violence.”
“The situation has improved greatly over time. The new generation can speak English and handle information well; BDSM is no longer considered a psychological disorder, and many professionals are supportive of sexual minorities. However, challenges related to hierarchical status still affect many living beings, including humans. So, I focus on human behavior in my research, though I sometimes revisit animal studies.”
For their study, Jozifkova and her colleagues recruited a sample of 486 participants through an online BDSM community. These participants completed a questionnaire assessing a range of factors, such as their experiences and preferences within BDSM, focusing on the nature of their submissive feelings and expectations in future relationships. The survey also included demographic details like age, educational background, self-assessed attractiveness, and financial status, which were controlled for in the analysis.
One key measure was emotional submissiveness in general social settings, assessed using a modified version of the Early Life Experiences Scale. This allowed the researchers to gauge each participant’s broader tendency toward submissive behavior, extending beyond just romantic relationships.
The researchers divided female participants into three distinct groups based on their self-reported levels of submissiveness and relationship dynamics. These groups included 33 women who felt submissive only during sexual activities (labeled as the “PLAY” group), 48 women who felt submissive in both sexual and relational contexts (“REL” group), and 20 women who enjoyed both submissive and dominant roles during sex (“SWITCH” group).
The study revealed notable differences between these three groups of women regarding their relationship preferences, commitment, and emotional investment.
The women who felt submissive not only in sexual activities but also within their overall relationship dynamics (the “REL” group) demonstrated a stronger preference for long-term, exclusive relationships compared to the other two groups. This group was also more likely to express a desire to invest heavily in their partnerships and tended to miss their partners when they were apart. Women in the REL group reported significantly less interest in short-term, casual encounters, open relationships, or parallel partnerships.
In contrast, the PLAY and SWITCH groups, who either felt submissive only in sexual settings or alternated between submissive and dominant roles, did not exhibit the same level of commitment or preference for exclusivity.
“There are different forms of submissiveness in sexual preferences,” Jozifkova told PsyPost. “Therefore, persons from each group may need different complementary partners. Some respondents experience submissiveness in sex alternately with dominance, some experience only submissiveness in sex, and some experience submissiveness in their relationship with their partner.”
A key finding was that the REL group scored higher on general submissiveness in everyday social situations, as measured by the adapted Early Life Experiences Scale. This suggests that these women not only adopt submissive roles within their romantic relationships but may also carry a broader tendency toward emotional submissiveness in daily interactions.
This general tendency toward submissiveness might align with a preference for stability and cohesion in relationships, supporting the researchers’ “glue hypothesis.” According to this hypothesis, hierarchical dynamics, where one partner takes a submissive role, could help “glue” or bind partners more closely together, enhancing long-term relationship stability. The researchers suggest that this hierarchy is part of an evolutionary strategy in which the dominant partner provides protection or resources, while the submissive partner strengthens the bond through loyalty and emotional investment.
However, this deep commitment and loyalty may also have a downside. Women in the REL group, who exhibit high emotional investment and prioritize hierarchy and monogamy, may be more vulnerable to remaining in potentially toxic or unbalanced relationships. This strong preference for loyalty might make them more likely to maintain these bonds even in situations that could become harmful, as their inclination for stability may override concerns about unequal or abusive dynamics.
“Women who were more submissive to their partners were also more submissive in everyday life,” Jozifkova said. “Those more submissive in everyday life are more vulnerable, have a harder time avoiding and resisting toxic partners, and may engage in riskier sexual activities to please their partner. They are more hurt by discrimination and judgment by the majority, and may be more prone to suicide.”
“A study by Kraft et al. (2021) links low hierarchical status to higher stress and more frequent inflammation, which can lead to riskier behavioral strategies. Although we are all equal according to legal laws, hierarchical status literally acts as a social cage, making it difficult for those in lower ranks to escape grievances caused by those above them. In helping such persons, it is necessary to be aware of the existence of this cage and to address assistance in light of their circumstances.”
While the REL group’s preferences and behaviors largely supported the “glue hypothesis,” the PLAY and SWITCH groups did not exhibit similar patterns, suggesting that their relationship dynamics may be more flexible and less commitment-driven.
This lack of significant difference between the PLAY and SWITCH groups indicates that women whose submissive preferences are confined to sexual interactions or who enjoy switching roles do not necessarily translate these preferences into broader emotional submissiveness or heightened relationship investment.
“I was surprised to find that women differed in their perceptions of future relationships and their hierarchical position in relation to others, not based on their feelings in sexual contexts, but based on their submissive feelings in the relationship outside of sex,” Jozifkova said. “I expected that those experiencing submissiveness in sex would differ from those experiencing both submissiveness and dominance in sex. However, it was the feelings in the relationship outside of sex that were decisive.”
As with all research, there are some limitations. The sample size, though targeted, was relatively small, and the study focused on women within a specific sexual subculture, which limits the generalizability of results. Additionally, as the research relied on self-reported data, participants’ responses may have been influenced by personal biases or social expectations.
Looking ahead, the researchers plan to broaden the sample to include non-BDSM practitioners, which will enhance understanding of these dynamics across different groups. Further investigation could also examine potential biological or psychological traits that could predispose individuals to seek hierarchical or egalitarian relationships.
“A kind look or a few kind words can help save a life or thwart a crime,” Jozifkova added. “Often, it may not be obvious at first glance how tense a person’s situation is, and the kindness of third parties can help tip things over to the better side.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2023.2300683) Exploring the Evolutionary-Biological Basis of Mating Strategies in Submissive Women: A Comparative Study in Three Subgroups of BDSM Sex Practitioners,” was authored by Eva Jozifkova, Martina Kolackova, and Marek Broul.

(https://www.psypost.org/people-who-engage-in-doomscrolling-are-more-likely-to-also-engage-in-celebrity-worship/) People who engage in doomscrolling are more likely to also engage in celebrity worship
Nov 4th 2024, 18:00

A recent study published in the (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ijop.13159) International Journal of Psychology has revealed a link between two emerging media-related behaviors: doomscrolling and celebrity worship. Researchers found that university students in both the United States and Iran who frequently engage in doomscrolling—a tendency to scroll through negative social media content—were also more likely to exhibit high levels of celebrity worship, suggesting that these behaviors may co-occur as forms of media-related behavioral addictions. Additionally, both doomscrolling and celebrity worship were associated with negative psychological outcomes, including higher future anxiety and reduced well-being.
The rise of social media has brought with it an increase in media-related behaviors, some of which can develop addictive characteristics. Doomscrolling and celebrity worship are two such behaviors that have emerged with the constant access to digital content. Doomscrolling, which involves persistently viewing negative news on social media, has been linked to future anxiety, depression, and diminished life satisfaction.
Similarly, celebrity worship—the excessive fascination with and admiration for celebrities—has also been associated with anxiety, depression, and a range of other negative psychological states. Given the potential for these behaviors to become addictive and lead to negative outcomes, the researchers aimed to investigate whether there is a relationship between them and whether they share common psychological correlates. Additionally, by comparing samples from the United States and Iran, the study aimed to explore whether cultural factors influence these relationships.
To explore these questions, the researchers recruited university students from the United States and Iran, yielding a sample of 185 students from the University of Central Missouri and 627 students from the University of Guilan. The American sample was predominantly female, while the Iranian sample had a higher proportion of male participants. Both groups completed an online survey that included measures of doomscrolling, celebrity worship, depression, future anxiety, and overall psychological well-being. Data were collected through various social media platforms affiliated with the universities, such as Facebook and Instagram for the American sample and Telegram for the Iranian sample.
The researchers used several scales to assess the behaviors and psychological states of interest. To measure doomscrolling, they used the Social Media Doomscrolling Scale, which includes items like “I have the urge to view more and more negative content on social media.” This scale had previously been validated in an Iranian sample and was tested for its reliability within the American group in this study.
For celebrity worship, they used the Celebrity Attitude Scale, which gauges individuals’ level of involvement and fascination with celebrities. Participants also completed measures of depression, future anxiety, and psychological well-being to provide a comprehensive view of their mental health. These psychological measures allowed the researchers to examine the associations between doomscrolling, celebrity worship, and mental health indicators in both cultural contexts.
The researchers found that both American and Iranian participants showed a positive correlation between doomscrolling and celebrity worship, indicating that individuals who frequently view negative social media content are also more likely to exhibit excessive admiration for celebrities. This association suggests that doomscrolling and celebrity worship may share underlying psychological drivers, potentially reinforcing each other and intensifying their effects.
In terms of mental health outcomes, doomscrolling was associated with negative consequences for both groups. In the Iranian sample, it correlated with lower psychological well-being and higher levels of depression and future anxiety, while in the American sample, it was linked to lower psychological well-being and future anxiety. These findings align with prior research showing that doomscrolling can negatively impact mental health, likely due to its focus on negative and distressing content that amplifies worry and anxiety about the future.
Celebrity worship also showed similar psychological patterns across the two cultural groups. In the Iranian sample, it was linked to higher depression and future anxiety, while in the American group, it was associated with future anxiety and lower psychological well-being. These results support the theory that celebrity worship, much like doomscrolling, can contribute to mental health challenges, particularly in terms of anxiety and well-being.
The study found that American participants generally scored higher on all measures, including doomscrolling, celebrity worship, depression, and future anxiety, compared to their Iranian counterparts. Interestingly, however, they also reported higher levels of psychological well-being, despite their greater engagement in these behaviors. The researchers suggest that cultural differences may play a role in this disparity. For instance, Western cultures, including the United States, tend to embrace greater emotional expressiveness and resilience, which could help mitigate some of the negative effects associated with these behaviors.
But as with all research, the study has some limitations. The researchers used a convenience sample, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the sample sizes and demographics were not balanced, with significantly more women in the American sample and more men in the Iranian sample. This gender imbalance, along with differences in age, could influence the results, as prior research has shown that younger individuals and women are more likely to report negative emotions and engage in social media-related behaviors. Another limitation is the study’s cross-sectional design, which means it can only show associations between variables, not causation.
To build on these findings, future research could use larger, more diverse samples to confirm whether the relationships observed in this study hold across different populations. Additionally, longitudinal studies that track individuals over time could provide deeper insights into how doomscrolling and celebrity worship might develop into behavioral addictions and how they influence mental health in the long term. Future research could also consider other cultural and sociodemographic factors, such as ethnic background, that might impact these behaviors and their effects on mental health.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.13159) Is doomscrolling related to celebrity worship? A cross-cultural study,” was authored by Lynn E. McCutcheon, Hyeyeon Hwang, Benyamin Mokhtari Chirani, Reza Shabahang, Mara S. Aruguete, and Emma F. Thomas.

(https://www.psypost.org/dating-app-study-sheds-light-on-memory-attraction-and-mate-value/) Dating app study sheds light on memory, attraction, and mate value
Nov 4th 2024, 16:00

A study using a mock dating app found that people retain better memories of faces they chose to match with than of those they did not choose. People who were short-term oriented, sexually attractive, and had higher mate value were more likely to match with individuals they considered attractive. The research was published in (https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2024.22) Evolutionary Human Sciences.
For most individuals, finding a suitable romantic partner is one of life’s key goals. However, the chosen partner must also reciprocate that choice, which doesn’t always occur. This mutual selection process has evolved into complex social games or rituals within human society.
Studies indicate that an individual’s choice of a romantic partner depends on the characteristics of prospective mates—referred to as mate value—the romantic goals of the person doing the choosing (e.g., long-term vs. short-term orientation), and various social and cultural factors.
In recent years, online dating apps like Tinder and Grindr have revolutionized the way people select potential romantic partners. Instead of face-to-face interactions within local communities, people now have the option to evaluate and contact a vast pool of potential partners across different countries. However, data on these potential partners is initially limited to what they present in their dating app profiles, leading individuals to develop new mate selection strategies to sift through the large pool of options.
Researchers Yikang Zhang and Pekka Santtila sought to explore how individuals choose potential mates on dating apps. They hypothesized that these choices would depend on sexual strategy (long-term vs. short-term orientation), perceived desirability or mate value (based on factors such as physical appearance, social status, resources, and personality), disgust sensitivity (making mates perceived as health risks—e.g., due to sexually transmitted diseases—less desirable), and memory.
The study involved 269 participants recruited through Prolific, who completed an online dating task and a series of assessments. Of the participants, 137 were women, and their average age was 25 years.
In the dating task, participants viewed photos of individuals of the sex they were attracted to, rated each photo for attractiveness, and chose whether or not they would want to match with each person. Each photo was also labeled as representing a person who was either short-term or long-term oriented in their romantic relationships. A day after this task, participants were again shown a set of faces and asked if they recalled seeing them and what their matching decision had been.
Before rating the faces, participants reported on their own perceived mate value (using the Mate Value Scale, e.g., “Overall, how would you rate your level of desirability as a partner on the following scale?”), adherence to a short-term mating strategy (e.g., “With how many different partners have you had sex within the past 12 months?”), adherence to a long-term mating strategy (e.g., “Interested in maintaining a long-term romantic relationship with someone”), and disgust sensitivity (using the Three-Domain Disgust Scale).
The results showed that individuals who saw themselves as more sexually attractive were slightly more likely to pursue a short-term mating strategy. These individuals also showed lower levels of sexual disgust and somewhat lower levels of moral disgust. Those who reported a stronger long-term mating strategy tended to see themselves as having higher mate value and reported higher levels of moral disgust.
People who were short-term oriented, sexually attractive, and had higher mate value were more likely to match with target individuals they found attractive. Participants generally had better memories of faces they chose to match with (on the first day) than of faces they did not choose to match with.
“We found behavioral evidence for assortative mating regarding sexual strategies. People with greater short-term (long-term) mating orientation were more likely to match with short-term (long-term) oriented targets. Further, people who perceived themselves as having higher (v. lower) mate value, or being more (vs. less) sexually attractive, were more likely to match with individuals they considered as attractive. Finally, people have better memories of the faces they chose to match than to not match, which could underlie the individual differences in perceived mating pools,” the study authors concluded.
The study contributes to the scientific understanding of online mate selection strategies. However, it used a very simple mock-up of a dating site selection procedure. Real-world mate selection on dating sites involves much more information than was available to participants in this study. Additionally, the faces used in the study came from the Oslo Face Database and involved university students who were mostly White, so results might differ if a broader selection of faces was offered.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2024.22) Predictors and Memory Consequences of Dating Decisions in a Dating App-Analogue Study,” was authored by Yikang Zhang and Pekka Santtila.

(https://www.psypost.org/intelligence-socioeconomic-status-and-gender-impact-adhd-diagnosis-timing/) Intelligence, socioeconomic status, and gender impact ADHD diagnosis timing
Nov 4th 2024, 15:30

A new study published in the (https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjc.12485) British Journal of Clinical Psychology has shed light on how individual characteristics and demographic factors may affect the timing of ADHD diagnoses. Using data from a large sample of children in Ontario, researchers found that children with higher intelligence scores, certain symptom types, and higher socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD at a later age. Additionally, non-White maternal ethnicity also correlated with delayed diagnosis, underscoring possible disparities in the diagnostic process.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning. Individuals with ADHD may struggle to stay focused, complete tasks, or control impulsive actions, which can lead to challenges in academic, social, and personal contexts. The symptoms of ADHD typically appear in childhood, often before the age of 12, and can continue into adolescence and adulthood, affecting a person’s performance in school, work, and relationships.
The researchers undertook this study to address concerns around the underdiagnosis of ADHD in specific groups, particularly girls and individuals with high cognitive abilities. ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition that has historically been more commonly diagnosed in boys, which can lead to an oversight of girls with the condition.
Past research suggested that girls often present ADHD symptoms differently, tending toward inattention and internalized symptoms rather than the more disruptive behaviors frequently seen in boys. These differences could mask ADHD symptoms, especially in high-functioning girls, leading to a delayed or missed diagnosis. The new study aimed to understand whether cognitive ability and symptom type influence diagnosis age and to examine if other factors, like socioeconomic background and ethnicity, also contribute to disparities.
The researchers used data from the Province of Ontario Neurodevelopmental Disorders Network, which includes information on 1,380 children diagnosed with ADHD. For their analysis, they selected 568 children who had completed the required assessments. Their methods included two main analyses: first, they looked at whether the child’s sex and cognitive ability predicted the age at which they were diagnosed, and second, they examined how specific ADHD symptoms and demographic details influenced diagnosis timing.
The children’s cognitive abilities were assessed using standardized intelligence tests, while ADHD symptoms were measured with the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behaviors scale. Demographic factors included family income, caregiver education, and the ethnicity of both the child and parents.
The study’s findings highlighted a significant relationship between intelligence scores and age of diagnosis. Children with higher IQ scores were diagnosed later than those with lower scores, which aligns with previous research indicating that children with higher cognitive abilities might be able to mask ADHD symptoms better, especially inattentive symptoms, which are less disruptive.
Notably, while the researchers expected that this effect might differ between boys and girls, they found that higher IQ scores were associated with a later diagnosis age across both sexes. However, there was no significant difference in diagnosis age between boys and girls in the sample. This may suggest that girls who eventually receive a diagnosis have more prominent symptoms that match the traditional ADHD presentation associated with boys, potentially making them more noticeable.
The researchers also observed that children who displayed more hyperactive and impulsive behaviors tended to receive earlier diagnoses. In contrast, inattentive symptoms alone did not correlate with diagnosis age, supporting the idea that disruptive behaviors are more likely to draw the attention of parents, teachers, or healthcare professionals. Internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety or depression, showed a trend toward later diagnoses, particularly in girls, but the sample size limited strong conclusions on this aspect.
The study revealed interesting links between demographic factors and the timing of ADHD diagnoses. Higher socioeconomic status, indicated by family income and parental education, was associated with later diagnoses. This finding is counterintuitive compared to some U.S.-based studies that have suggested children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are diagnosed later due to access issues.
The researchers suggest that Canada’s public healthcare system, which provides more equitable access to services than the United States, might explain why higher socioeconomic status correlates with later diagnosis in this context. Higher parental education levels were also correlated with later diagnosis ages, possibly reflecting that these families are more aware of the nuanced aspects of ADHD, potentially leading to a later but more accurate diagnosis.
Additionally, maternal ethnicity played a role in diagnosis age. Children whose mothers identified as non-White tended to be diagnosed at a later age than those with White mothers. While the study’s findings did not extend this delay to the child’s own reported ethnicity, the researchers note that maternal factors, such as cultural attitudes toward ADHD and healthcare, might impact when and how parents seek a diagnosis for their children. Cross-cultural studies have shown that ADHD may be underrecognized in ethnic minority groups, leading to delays in diagnosis and treatment. This difference in recognition may relate to cultural variations in understanding ADHD symptoms or barriers in communication with healthcare providers.
While this study provides important insights, the authors note some limitations. First, the sample included only children with clinical diagnoses of ADHD, meaning it did not account for those who may have ADHD but remain undiagnosed. Including a broader sample in future studies would allow for comparisons between clinically diagnosed and undiagnosed children, particularly to explore if undiagnosed girls present high cognitive abilities or specific internalizing symptoms that mask their ADHD. Additionally, the demographic data were incomplete for some participants, which restricted analyses and may have limited the study’s power to detect effects in certain groups.
Future research could benefit from more comprehensive data on internalizing symptoms and ethnicity, as well as a focus on undiagnosed children who may exhibit ADHD traits but do not meet the full diagnostic criteria. Overall, the study emphasizes the importance of recognizing that ADHD diagnosis timing can be influenced by a child’s intelligence, behavioral presentation, and demographic context. By identifying these factors, clinicians may be better equipped to detect ADHD across a more diverse range of children, potentially reducing the negative impacts of delayed or missed diagnoses in certain groups.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12485) Sex and intelligence quotient differences in age of diagnosis among youth with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder,” was authored by Carolynn Hare, Alexandra C. Leslie, Lindsay P. Bodell, Erin A. Kaufman, J. Bruce Morton, Robert Nicolson, Elizabeth Kelley, Jessica Jones, Muhammed Ayub, Jennifer Crosbie, Russell Schachar, Evdokia Anagnostou, Magali Segers, and Ryan A. Stevenson.

(https://www.psypost.org/why-some-people-share-conspiracy-theories-they-dont-even-believe/) Why some people share conspiracy theories they don’t even believe
Nov 4th 2024, 14:00

There has been a lot of research on the types of (https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-bul0000392.pdf) people who believe conspiracy theories, and their (https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/talking-apes/201801/why-do-people-believe-in-conspiracy-theories) reasons for doing so. But there’s a wrinkle: My colleagues and I have found that there are a number of people sharing conspiracies online who don’t believe their own content.
They are opportunists. These people share conspiracy theories to promote conflict, cause chaos, recruit and radicalize potential followers, make money, harass, or even just to get attention.
There are several types of this sort of conspiracy-spreader trying to influence you.
Coaxing conspiracists – the extremists
In our chapter of a new book on extremism and conspiracies, my colleagues and I discuss evidence that (https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003459255-10/taking-conspiracies-extremes-colleen-sinclair-andrew-burns-brett-burton) certain extremist groups intentionally use conspiracy theories to entice adherents. They are looking for a so-called “(https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0275502) gateway conspiracy” that will lure someone into talking to them, and then be (https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/jan/11/we-walked-into-a-trap-anti-vaxxers-on-life-after-conspiracy-theories) vulnerable to radicalization. They try out multiple conspiracies to see what sticks.
Research shows that people with (https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-121) positive feelings for extremist groups are significantly more likely to knowingly share false content online. For instance, the disinformation-monitoring company (https://blackbird.ai/) Blackbird.AI tracked over 119 million COVID-19 conspiracy posts from May 2020, when activists were (https://hdl.handle.net/2144/42490) protesting pandemic restrictions and lockdowns in the United States. Of these, over 32 million tweets were identified as high on their manipulation index. Those posted by various extremist groups were particularly likely to carry markers of insincerity. For instance, one group, the Boogaloo Bois, generated over 610,000 tweets, of which 58% were intent on incitement and radicalization.
You can also just take the word of the extremists themselves. When the (https://theconversation.com/the-far-right-rioters-at-the-capitol-were-not-antifa-but-violent-groups-often-blame-rivals-for-unpopular-attacks-153193) Boogaloo Bois militia group showed up at the Jan. 6, 2021, insurrection, for example, members stated they didn’t actually endorse the stolen election conspiracy, but were there to “(https://www.propublica.org/article/boogaloo-bois-military-training) mess with the federal government.” (https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/ohio-boogaloo-boi-arrested-allegedly-threatening-blow-irs-kill-federal-rcna55226) Aron McKillips, a Boogaloo member arrested in 2022 as part of an FBI sting, is another example of an opportunistic conspiracist. In his own words: “I don’t believe in anything. I’m only here for the violence.”
Combative conspiracists – the disinformants
Governments love conspiracy theories. The classic example of this is the 1903 document known as the “(https://www.state.gov/gec-releases-special-report-more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism-to-spread-disinformation-and-propaganda/) Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” in which Russia constructed an enduring myth about Jewish plans for world domination. More recently, China used artificial intelligence to construct a (https://www.voanews.com/a/fact-check-china-boosts-anti-us-conspiracy-theory-about-maui-fire/7278075.html) fake conspiracy theory about the August 2023 Maui wildfire.
Often the behavior of the conspiracists gives them away. Years later, (https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/operation-denver-kgb-aids-disinformation-campaign) Russia eventually confessed to (https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2017/jun/14/russian-fake-news-is-not-new-soviet-aids-propaganda-cost-countless-lives) lying about AIDS in the 1980s. But even before admitting to the campaign, its agents had forged documents to support the conspiracy. Forgeries aren’t created by accident. They knew they were lying.
As for other conspiracies it hawks, Russia is famous for taking both sides in any contentious issue, spreading lies online to (https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russian-disinformation-network-eu-politicians-elections/) foment conflict and polarization. People who actually believe in a conspiracy tend to stick to a side. Meanwhile, Russians knowingly deploy what one analyst has called a “(https://publications.armywarcollege.edu/News/Display/Article/3789933/understanding-russian-disinformation-and-how-the-joint-force-can-address-it/) fire hose of falsehoods.”
Likewise, while Chinese officials were (https://www.the-scientist.com/chinese-officials-blame-us-army-for-coronavirus-67267) spreading conspiracies about American roots of the coronavirus in 2020, China’s National Health Commission was circulating internal reports (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/13/world/asia/coronavirus-china-conspiracy-theory.html) tracing the source to a pangolin.
Chaos conspiracists – the trolls
In general, research has found that individuals with what scholars call a high “need for chaos” are (https://doi.org/10.1177/20531680231193514) more likely to indiscriminately share conspiracies, regardless of belief. These are the (https://www.unisq.edu.au/news/2023/04/online-trolls) everyday trolls who share false content for a variety of reasons, (https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/writing-with-integrity/202008/why-do-people-troll-online) none of which are benevolent. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101752) Dark personalities and dark motives are prevalent.
For instance, in the wake of the first assassination attempt on Donald Trump, a false accusation arose online (https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/trump-rally-shooting-conspiracy-theories-flourish-online-rcna161752) about the identity of the shooter and his motivations. The person who first posted this claim knew he was making up a name and stealing a photo. The (https://observers.france24.com/en/americas/20240717-no-this-photo-and-video-do-not-show-the-gunman-who-tried-to-assassinate-trump) intent was apparently to harass the Italian sports blogger whose photo was stolen. This fake conspiracy was seen over 300,000 times on the social platform X and picked up by multiple other conspiracists eager to fill the information gap about the assassination attempt.
Commercial conspiracists – the profiteers
Often when I encounter a conspiracy theory I ask: “What does the sharer have to gain? Are they telling me this because they have an evidence-backed concern, or are they trying to sell me something?”
When researchers tracked down the 12 people primarily responsible for the vast majority of anti-vaccine conspiracies online, (https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996570855/disinformation-dozen-test-facebooks-twitters-ability-to-curb-vaccine-hoaxes) most of them had a financial investment in perpetuating these misleading narratives.
Some people who fall into this category might truly believe their conspiracy, but their first priority is (https://www.dw.com/en/the-conspiracy-business-how-to-make-money-with-fake-news/a-56660466) finding a way to make money from it. For instance, conspiracist Alex Jones bragged that his fans would “(https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2023/03/08/absolutely-bonkers-inside-infowars-money-machine) buy anything.” Fox News and its on-air personality Tucker Carlson publicized lies about voter fraud in the 2020 election to keep viewers engaged, while behind-the-scenes communications revealed they (https://www.businessinsider.com/fox-news-hosts-knew-election-conspiracy-theories-false-messages-dominion-2023-2) did not endorse what they espoused.
(https://pressbooks.pub/fakenews/chapter/6-what-motivates-people-to-spread-fake-news-on-social-media/) Profit doesn’t just mean money. People can also profit from spreading conspiracies if it garners them influence or followers, or protects their reputation. Even (https://theconversation.com/disinformation-is-part-and-parcel-of-social-medias-business-model-new-research-shows-217842) social media companies are reluctant to combat conspiracies because they know they attract more clicks.
Common conspiracists – the attention-getters
You don’t have to be a profiteer to like some attention. Plenty of regular people share content where they doubt the veracity, or (https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/12/14154753/PJ_2016.12.15_fake-news_FINAL.pdf) know it is false.
These posts are common: Friends, family and acquaintances share the latest conspiracy theory with “could this be true?” queries or “seems close enough to the truth” taglines. Their accompanying comments show that sharers are, at minimum, unsure about the truthfulness of the content, but they share nonetheless. Many (https://www.media.mit.edu/articles/why-do-americans-share-so-much-fake-news-one-big-reason-is-they-aren-t-paying-attention-new-research-suggests/) share without even reading past a headline. Still others, approximately (https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/disinformation-on-social-media/) 7% to 20% of social media users, share despite knowing the content is false. Why?
Some claim to be sharing to inform people “(https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231192032) just in case” it is true. But this sort of “sound the alarm” reason actually (https://doi.org/10.1177/20531680231193514) isn’t that common.
Often, folks are just looking for attention or (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101352) other personal benefit. They (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.05.026) don’t want to miss out on a hot-topic conversation. They want (https://erc.europa.eu/projects-statistics/science-stories/why-people-share-disinformation) the likes and shares. They want to “(https://www.lboro.ac.uk/research/online-civic-culture-centre/news-events/articles/o3c-1-survey-report-news-sharing-misinformation/) stir the pot.” Or they (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0239666) just like the message and want to signal to others that they share a common belief system.
For frequent sharers, it just (https://today.usc.edu/usc-study-reveals-the-key-reason-why-fake-news-spreads-on-social-media/) becomes a habit.
The dangers of spreading lies
Over time, the opportunists may end up convincing themselves. After all, they will eventually have to come to terms with why they are engaging in unethical and deceptive, if not destructive, behavior. They may have a rationale for why lying is good. Or they may convince themselves that they aren’t lying by claiming they thought the conspiracy was true all along.
It’s important to be cautious and not believe everything you read. These opportunists don’t even believe everything they write – and share. But they want you to. So be aware that the next time you share an unfounded conspiracy theory, online or offline, you could be helping an opportunist. They don’t buy it, so neither should you. (https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03503-6) Be aware before you share. Don’t be what these opportunists derogatorily refer to as “(https://www.newsguardrealitycheck.com/p/commentary-russias-paid-idiots-and) a useful idiot.”
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/some-online-conspiracy-spreaders-dont-even-believe-the-lies-theyre-spewing-237730) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-study-examines-how-sadness-and-fear-sharpen-self-control/) New psychology study examines how sadness and fear sharpen self-control
Nov 4th 2024, 10:00

Sadness and fear, but not happiness, enhance inhibitory behavior, according to a study published in (https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2024.2349281) Cognition & Emotion.
Research has shown that emotions play a key role in shaping behavior and cognition, particularly in relation to executive functions like attention, problem-solving, and inhibition. While positive emotions like happiness are generally associated with cognitive flexibility and exploration, the role of negative emotions like fear and sadness in executive control is less understood.
Justin Storbeck and colleagues addressed this gap by exploring the specific effects of discrete emotions on inhibitory processes, building on frameworks such as the emotion and goal compatibility theory, which suggests that emotions enhance executive functions based on their relevance to achieving specific goals.
Experiment 1 included 141 participants who were randomly assigned to one of four emotion conditions (sadness, fear, happiness, or neutral), which were induced using images from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). The anti-saccade task, which measures oculomotor inhibition, required participants to look away from a visual cue. Accuracy was recorded as the primary measure of inhibitory control. Across all experiments, participants also completed a manipulation check to assess the effectiveness of the emotion induction and were asked to report their emotional states before completing the inhibition tasks.
Those in the sadness and fear conditions showed significantly higher accuracy in the anti-saccade task, successfully resisting reflexive eye movements toward the cue. This result suggests that sadness and fear improve inhibitory control, helping participants focus by minimizing distractions compared to happiness and neutral conditions.
Experiment 2 involved 155 participants. After emotional induction through IAPS images, participants completed a negative priming task. This task measured interference inhibition by requiring participants to identify the larger of two circles, with interference trials placing the larger circle in the same location as a previously irrelevant smaller circle to test their ability to ignore past irrelevant stimuli.
Contrary to expectations, sadness impaired performance on the negative priming task, with participants in this condition demonstrating lower interference inhibition. The happiness, fear, and neutral conditions did not significantly affect performance, indicating that sadness may reduce inhibition when it involves filtering out previously relevant information.
Experiment 3 involved 150 participants, who following emotion induction, performed a backward inhibition task, where they switched between goal sets (e.g., identifying based on shape, size, or orientation). Backward inhibition was measured by comparing reaction times for returning to a previously relevant goal set versus a new one, assessing participants’ cognitive inhibition in suppressing prior cognitive sets.
Sadness and fear conditions showed stronger cognitive inhibition, as participants took longer to respond when switching back to a previous goal set. This suggests that sadness and fear improve cognitive inhibition by helping participants suppress previously relevant information, aiding in goal maintenance during task shifts.
In Experiment 4, 154 participants were again divided into sadness, fear, happiness, and neutral conditions, with an additional anger condition to test whether the approach orientation of anger might affect inhibition. They completed a go/no-go task, requiring rapid responses to a “go” stimulus and inhibition of responses to a “no-go” stimulus. Behavioral inhibition was measured by the accuracy in withholding responses on no-go trials.
Sadness and fear conditions demonstrated higher accuracy on no-go trials, indicating better behavioral inhibition than the happiness and anger conditions. Anger, in particular, impaired inhibition, suggesting that withdrawal-oriented emotions like sadness and fear enhance inhibitory control more effectively than approach-oriented emotions.
One limitation is that the study did not include other negative emotions, such as disgust, that might also influence inhibitory control.
Overall, this research suggests that sadness and fear enhance inhibitory control, helping individuals focus on relevant tasks by suppressing irrelevant distractions or automatic responses. These findings challenge the traditional view that negative emotions always impair cognitive performance.
The research, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2024.2349281) Sadness and fear, but not happiness, motivate inhibitory behavior: The influence of discrete emotions on the executive function of inhibition”, was authored by Justin Storbeck, Jennifer L. Stewart, and Jordan Wylie.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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