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(https://www.psypost.org/new-psychology-research-shows-whats-really-driving-your-fear-of-missing-out/) New psychology research shows what’s really driving your fear of missing out
Dec 8th 2024, 06:00

A new study published in the (https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000418) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology reveals that the fear of missing out, or FOMO, isn’t just about missing out on fun. Instead, it’s about missing opportunities to bond with people we care about. The research highlights how FOMO stems from anxiety over how our absence might affect our relationships and belonging in social groups—concerns that can arise even when the missed events aren’t particularly enjoyable.
FOMO has gained significant attention as a psychological phenomenon, often associated with compulsive smartphone use, reduced well-being, and unsafe behaviors like distracted driving. While previous studies have linked FOMO to traits like loneliness and a need for social connection, the researchers behind the new study sought to understand the specific triggers and thought patterns behind FOMO. They hypothesized that FOMO goes beyond mere regret over missed enjoyable experiences and instead stems from anxiety about social group dynamics and future belonging.
“As a consumer psychologist, I am interested in understanding what goes into consumers’ decisions and how these decisions impact their well-being. I’m particularly interested in decisions about spending time—both how we spend our own time and the interpretations we draw from how others spend time,” said study author (https://business.cornell.edu/faculty-research/faculty/jrr348/) Jacqueline R. Rifkin, an assistant professor of marketing at SC Johnson College of Business at Cornell University.
“Based on these interests, it’s likely not surprising that I study decisions to attend events and experiences—but, perhaps less obviously, I’m also interested in what happens when we miss events and experiences. That’s how I got interested in FOMO and understanding the specific anxieties involved, especially when we miss events involving social connections we care deeply about.”
The researchers conducted seven experiments with a total of 5,441 participants. These experiments explored various scenarios involving missed events to uncover the psychological drivers of FOMO. Participants were recruited from online platforms like Amazon Mechanical Turk and Prolific, and the studies used diverse methods, including hypothetical scenarios, real social media browsing tasks, and experimental manipulations of event characteristics.
The findings showed that participants experienced greater FOMO when they missed events involving close friends or important social groups compared to events involving strangers or irrelevant groups. Notably, FOMO was heightened in scenarios where events promoted social bonding, such as team-building activities, even if these activities were uncomfortable or demanding. This suggests that the value of the missed event lies not in its inherent enjoyment but in the perception of connection and shared history it fosters among group members. Missing these opportunities appears to trigger fears of diminished closeness, reduced status, or even exclusion from the group.
“I was surprised to see that people can feel a good bit of FOMO for missed events that are not enjoyable—like a funeral, consoling a sad friend, or a hectic initiation ceremony,” Rifkin told PsyPost. “For me, this really hammered home the point that FOMO is really not about the fun that we’re missing—it’s those intangible connections people build when they spend time together, which absolutely includes bonding over something sad or emotional.”
The researchers found that FOMO was amplified by social media, where seeing posts about missed events acted as a situational trigger for social anxiety. Participants reported concerns about how their absence might affect their relationships, including fears of being seen as a less valuable group member or being left out of future interactions.
Interestingly, these anxieties were often exaggerated when individuals considered the potential consequences for themselves. When asked to imagine a friend missing the same event, participants perceived the social ramifications as less severe. This finding highlights a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the personal costs of missing social bonding opportunities.
The research also underscored the complex nature of FOMO, showing it is distinct from other social phenomena like regret or feelings of ostracism. While regret focuses on a missed experience’s immediate rewards, and ostracism relates to active exclusion, FOMO centers on anxiety about future social relationships. This distinction helps explain why people may feel FOMO even for unenjoyable missed events—such as a grueling team-building retreat—if they perceive those events as opportunities for bonding among their peers.
“FOMO is not about the event that you missed per se: If we miss a group dinner at a restaurant, we’re not really upset about the missed food and drink,” Rifkin explained. “What we’re upset about is the fact that we missed the chance to bond, connect, and make memories with people we care about. Even more so, we’re upset about the implications of the fact that people we care about were able to bond, connect, and make memories with each other: What does it mean for us (and our social relationships) that we missed out? Could it somehow damage our relationships or sense of belonging? This is the core of the anxiety.”
Importantly, the study identified an intervention that reduced FOMO: reflecting on a past instance of social connection. Participants who engaged in this simple exercise reported lower levels of FOMO after encountering social media posts about missed events. This intervention suggests that reminding oneself of past belonging can provide a buffer against the emotional distress associated with perceived social exclusion. The effect was particularly noticeable compared to other strategies, such as imagining future connections or taking a third-person perspective, which showed smaller and less consistent benefits.
“We were really encouraged when one of the small interventions we tested—reflecting on a past social engagement—mitigated the FOMO people got from seeing social media posts about missed events,” Rifkin told PsyPost. “Since FOMO is really an anxiety about one’s relationships and sense of belonging, it makes sense that reminding yourself of existing strong connections and prior times you felt a sense of belonging can help offset this. But it also offers a relatively simple technique, almost like a short mindfulness exercise, that we can use when FOMO strikes.”
While the study provides significant insights into the social and psychological roots of FOMO, it is not without limitations. The samples were predominantly drawn from online marketplaces, limiting diversity in cultural backgrounds and age groups. Additionally, although the findings suggest causal relationships, some results rely on correlational data, making it difficult to establish definitive cause-and-effect links.
Future research could explore FOMO across different cultures, where norms around social bonding and group membership may vary. Another potential avenue is to investigate FOMO in non-social domains, such as financial or professional settings, to understand whether the psychological mechanisms extend beyond social relationships.
“Some might wonder if FOMO is a new phenomenon that arose from social media or mobile phone use, or whether this is something older but just with a new name,” Rifkin added. “Personally, my perspective is that people have wanted to feel like they belong since the beginning of time. But what’s new or modern is how much of our social lives show up on social media, and how interconnected we can stay at all times. So, reminders about what we did or what we didn’t do, and anxieties about what it could mean for us, have become ubiquitous and inescapable.”
“My overarching research aims are to understand how our consumption decisions (and our observations of others’ consumption decisions) shape well-being, both at an individual and societal level. Through my research, I’m hoping I can understand the pitfalls where we may accidentally sabotage or undermine our own happiness, and offer recommendations for ways to halt these cycles and improve personal and collective wellness. These insights will not only help individuals manage their own lives but also provide a roadmap for marketers and firms who care about their customer bases. After all, happy customers are loyal customers.”
The study, “(https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2025-36987-001.html) Anxiety About the Social Consequences of Missed Group Experiences Intensifies Fear of Missing Out (FOMO),” was authored by Jacqueline R. Rifkin, Cindy Chan, and Barbara E. Kahn.

(https://www.psypost.org/its-not-digital-illiteracy-heres-why-older-adults-are-drawn-to-dubious-news/) It’s not digital illiteracy: Here’s why older adults are drawn to dubious news
Dec 7th 2024, 14:00

A recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfae044) Public Opinion Quarterly challenges the prevailing belief that digital illiteracy is the primary factor behind older adults interaction with unreliable online sources. The new findings provide evidence that while older adults are more likely than younger cohorts to engage with unreliable new sources, their susceptibility does not stem from an inability to identify false content. Instead, heightened partisan bias and entrenched political identities appear to drive their engagement.
The internet’s role in spreading misinformation has sparked global concerns, particularly regarding older adults’ engagement with unreliable content. Past research identified older Americans as disproportionately responsible for sharing dubious news, raising alarms about their vulnerability to online misinformation. Previous explanations often pointed to digital illiteracy, cognitive decline, or social isolation among older adults as key factors.
However, evidence has remained inconsistent. While older adults consume and share more dubious news, they often outperform younger individuals in discerning false headlines in controlled experiments. To reconcile these conflicting findings, researchers designed a study that integrates survey data and real-world digital behavior to better understand the drivers of older adults’ engagement with unreliable news.
“Others have documented that exposure to and engagement with untrustworthy news sources increase with age, and I think it is important to understand the information environments of older adults, an increasingly powerful and important segment of society,” said study author (https://faculty.utah.edu/u6026357-BEN_LYONS/hm/index.hml) Ben Lyons, an assistant professor of communication at the University of Utah.
The research utilized three nationally representative panel surveys of nearly 10,000 Americans, conducted around the 2018 midterm elections. These surveys were paired with digital trace data, which captured participants’ actual online behavior, including visits to websites categorized as reliable, false, or hyperpartisan. This method allowed the researchers to assess both participants’ ability to discern false information in controlled settings and their real-world engagement with low-quality news sources.
Survey tasks asked participants to evaluate the accuracy of various news headlines, which included false, mainstream, and hyperpartisan stories. False headlines were those that had been thoroughly fact-checked and found to be untrue. Hyperpartisan headlines, while based on factual events, were presented in a highly slanted and misleading manner.
The study also included a digital literacy intervention: participants were shown brief tips on how to identify false news, and their discernment skills were evaluated before and after this training. In addition to examining digital literacy, the researchers analyzed political variables, such as participants’ partisan identities, levels of political interest, and degree of affective polarization (a strong emotional preference for one’s political party and aversion to the opposition).
The findings revealed a clear age-related difference in engagement with dubious news. Older adults were more likely to visit dubious websites and engage with hyperpartisan content. However, their engagement was not linked to an inability to identify false news. In fact, survey results showed that older adults were often better than younger participants at discerning the accuracy of both false and mainstream news headlines. This challenges the common assumption that digital illiteracy among older Americans is the primary reason for their higher interaction with unreliable news. Furthermore, the digital literacy intervention had similar effects across all age groups, suggesting that older adults are not uniquely deficient in this area.
Instead, the researchers identified partisan bias as a key factor driving older adults’ engagement with dubious news. Older participants displayed stronger partisan leanings and were more likely to view headlines aligned with their political beliefs as accurate. The researchers argued that this heightened partisan bias stems from entrenched political identities, which tend to become more calcified with age.
“Older adults do share more misinformation online, but this is not because they lack digital literacy or other skills,” Lyons told PsyPost. “Instead, older adults have stronger partisan attachments, which lead them to share more dubious news that denigrates their political opponents. Interventions aimed at tackling misinformation among this age group need to take that into account.”
A particularly important discovery was the role of hyperpartisan news in this dynamic. While most previous research on misinformation focused on entirely false headlines, this study highlighted how hyperpartisan content—stories that are technically true but presented in a highly biased way—drives much of the engagement among older adults. By distinguishing between false and hyperpartisan news, the researchers were able to reconcile the apparent discrepancy between survey results (which show strong discernment skills among older adults) and digital trace data (which show high engagement with dubious news).
“Initially, I discovered a disconnect between engagement with misinformation, which older adults do at higher rates, and apparent belief in it, which does not seem to increase with age,” Lyons explained. “I wanted to understand the reason for this disjuncture.”
“I then realized that we were studying these two questions in fairly different ways. In surveys, researchers typically expose respondents to false news that is balanced in its partisan slant, with an equal number of items congenial to Republicans and Democrats, for instance. However, when we measure exposure or engagement in the wild, we measure behavior that is based on the actual supply of untrustworthy news outlets, which tends to be skewed far to the right.”
“Further, when we assess susceptibility to false news in surveys, we tend to use stories verified to be false,” Lyons continued. “In the wild, we tend to measure exposure or engagement based on lists of sources that tend to be unreliable but surely publish many stories that are not completely fabricated. I found in this data that accounting for these disparities can help explain the disjuncture in outcomes. It appears that older consumers’ engagement with dubious news is sincere, stemming from news judgments made through a strong partisan perceptual screen.”
Despite its robust methodology, the study has limitations. It focuses exclusively on political news, leaving unanswered questions about engagement with misinformation on non-political topics. Additionally, the findings are limited to the United States, though similar patterns may exist in other countries with polarized political climates.
Lyons is expanding this line of research into a book project that will explore these dynamics further, with the goal of informing public policy on misinformation interventions tailored to older audiences.
“I’m currently working on a book project on the topic,” he explained. “In this work, I plan to comprehensively unravel this puzzle through replications and extensions of the current findings. My goal for this project is to not only make a meaningful contribution to theoretical discussions surrounding misinformation and older adults but to shape public policy on this issue as well, using this project’s findings as an opportunity to discuss approaches to age-specific misinformation interventions.”
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfae044) Partisanship and older Americans’ engagement with dubious political news,” was authored by Benjamin Lyons, Jacob M. Montgomery, and Jason Reifler.

(https://www.psypost.org/partners-positive-mood-linked-to-reduced-cortisol-levels-in-older-couples/) Partner’s positive mood linked to reduced cortisol levels in older couples
Dec 7th 2024, 12:00

A new study published in the journal (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453024001628) Psychoneuroendocrinology highlights the profound impact a partner’s positive emotions can have on stress management, particularly in older couples. The findings suggest that when a relationship partner experiences more positive emotions, their partner tends to have lower cortisol levels—a key stress hormone—both moment-to-moment and throughout the day. The connection between a partner’s positivity and cortisol was especially strong in couples with higher relationship satisfaction and among older participants.
The study was motivated by a growing body of evidence linking emotional experiences within intimate relationships to health outcomes. Cortisol, a hormone central to the body’s stress response, fluctuates with emotional states and, when dysregulated, is associated with adverse health conditions such as heightened stress, depression, and chronic illnesses. Older adulthood presents unique challenges, as individuals often exhibit stronger physiological responses to stress and a reduced capacity to regulate cortisol levels effectively.
Recognizing the vital role relationships play in emotional and physical well-being later in life, the researchers sought to understand how a partner’s emotional experiences might influence physiological stress markers like cortisol. Barbara Fredrickson’s Positivity Resonance Theory, which emphasizes that shared positive emotional experiences characterized by mutual care and synchrony enhance well-being and strengthen bonds, inspired this investigation. According to the theory, a partner’s positive emotions may act as a relational resource, fostering emotional connection and promoting resilience against stress.
“I am fascinated by Barbara Fredrickson’s Positivity Resonance Theory, which explains the dynamics—and the importance!—of shared positive emotions during social interactions. For anyone who is interested, her book (https://amzn.to/3ZnyfFo) Love 2.0 is excellent,” said study author Tomiko Yoneda, an assistant professor at the University of California, Davis, and head of (https://yonedalab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/) the Healthspan Lab.
The researchers pooled data from three independent studies involving 321 older adult couples from Canada and Germany. Participants completed daily assessments over a week, including multiple saliva samples to measure cortisol and electronic surveys to report emotional experiences. Couples were mostly long-term partners, with relationships averaging 44 years. They were recruited under strict eligibility criteria to ensure both physical and cognitive health. Participants rated their momentary emotions—such as happiness, relaxation, or anger—on a scale, providing a snapshot of their emotional states throughout the day.
“I was particularly impressed by the participants’ adherence,” Yoneda said. “They completed short surveys on tablets and measured their own cortisol via saliva samples 5–7 times per day for 7 consecutive days. Despite the substantial burden, adherence was incredibly high, at 91–98% across the three sub-samples.”
The study captured how participants’ own emotional experiences influenced their cortisol levels and examined whether these associations extended to their partners. Cortisol levels typically follow a diurnal rhythm, peaking shortly after waking and gradually declining throughout the day. The researchers also measured total daily cortisol secretion, known as the area under the curve, to provide a comprehensive picture of participants’ stress physiology. Participants’ relationship satisfaction was also assessed to explore how relationship quality influenced the emotional-cortisol dynamics.
The results revealed that positive emotions experienced by one partner were linked to lower cortisol levels in the other partner, both moment-to-moment and throughout the day. “Our findings showed that when your partner is happy, it’s linked to you having lower levels of cortisol throughout the day,” Yoneda told PsyPost. “Importantly, this effect goes beyond the influence of your own happiness on your cortisol.”
Interestingly, while participants’ own negative emotions were associated with higher cortisol levels, their partner’s negative emotions showed no consistent effect on cortisol. This suggests that the influence of emotions within couples may be more pronounced for positive states, potentially due to their role in fostering connection and mutual support.
“We didn’t find any links between a person’s cortisol levels and their partner’s negative emotions, suggesting that older adults may shield or protect their partner from sharing, physiologically, in negative emotions,” Yoneda explained. “This aligns with research showing that older adults tend to focus on emotionally meaningful goals and regulate emotions more effectively, fostering more positive relationships in late life.”
Another key finding was the amplifying effect of age and relationship satisfaction. The association between a partner’s positive emotions and reduced cortisol was more pronounced in older participants and in those who expressed greater relationship satisfaction. This underscores the importance of emotional and relational contexts in shaping physiological responses, particularly during older adulthood when stress regulation becomes more challenging.
The study highlights the interconnectedness of emotional and physiological processes within intimate relationships but acknowledges some limitations. Most participants were healthy, long-term couples in heterosexual relationships, which may not represent the broader population of older adults. This homogeneity limits the generalizability of the findings to more diverse groups, including those in non-traditional or less satisfying relationships.
Additionally, the observational nature of the study means causality cannot be determined. The researchers cannot definitively say whether a partner’s positive emotions reduce cortisol or if lower cortisol levels contribute to more positive emotions in their partner.
Future studies could explore these dynamics in more diverse samples, including younger couples, same-sex relationships, or individuals with health challenges. Researchers might also examine how specific behaviors, such as physical affection or shared activities, mediate the connection between emotions and stress. Understanding these mechanisms could help develop interventions that harness the emotional benefits of relationships to promote health and resilience as we age.
“I am interested in investigating how psychological and physiological processes are intertwined in relationship partners to identify ways in which personality factors and emotions can act as a social resource that may subsequently lead to optimal aging and development,” Yoneda said.
“This research would not have been possible without my incredible team of co-authors!” she added.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107118) ‘What’s yours is mine’: Partners’ everyday emotional experiences and cortisol in older adult couples,” was authored by Tomiko Yoneda, Theresa Pauly, Nilam Ram, Karolina Kolodziejczak-Krupp, Maureen C. Ashe, Kenneth Madden, Johanna Drewelies, Denis Gerstorf, and Christiane A. Hoppmann.

(https://www.psypost.org/childhood-maltreatment-alters-serotonin-and-dopamine-receptor-systems-in-primates-study-finds/) Childhood maltreatment alters serotonin and dopamine receptor systems in primates, study finds
Dec 7th 2024, 10:00

A study of rhesus macaques revealed that infants who experienced higher levels of maltreatment by their mothers tended to develop into adolescents with weaker binding potential of serotonin receptors in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, striatum, and hippocampus regions of the brain. They also exhibited weaker binding potential of dopamine receptors in the amygdala. The research was published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-023-01784-0) Neuropsychopharmacology.
Childhood maltreatment refers to any form of abuse or neglect experienced by a child under the age of 18 that threatens their health, development, or dignity. It includes physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, as well as neglect or exploitation. Maltreatment can occur in the home, school, or community and is often perpetrated by caregivers or individuals in positions of trust.
Studies have linked childhood maltreatment to an increased risk of various psychiatric illnesses. The neural mechanisms underlying this link are not fully understood, but researchers hypothesize that alterations in the neural systems involving the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine may play a role. Serotonin broadly regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and other essential physiological processes, while dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, movement, and emotional regulation.
Study author Alison G. P. Wakeford and colleagues aimed to explore the effects of childhood maltreatment on serotonin receptors (5HT1A and 5HT2A) and dopamine (D2) receptors in the brain. To achieve this, they conducted a study on rhesus macaques.
The study included 13 male and 12 female rhesus macaques born and housed at the Primate Research Center Field Station in Lawrenceville, Georgia. These monkeys lived in large social groups consisting of 75–150 adult females, their subadult and juvenile offspring, and 2–3 adult males. The monkeys were observed from birth through adolescence.
At birth, the infants were randomly assigned to two groups. The first group was raised by mothers with a history of providing nurturing maternal care. The second group was raised by mothers with a history of maltreating their offspring. The abusive mothers were observed physically abusing and rejecting their infants during the first three months of life, causing pain, emotional distress, and elevated stress hormone levels. Such behaviors were not observed in the nurturing mothers. The first group consisted of 11 infants, while the second group had 14.
The researchers closely observed the maternal care the infants received and their emotional reactivity during the first three months of life. They also measured cortisol levels—an indicator of stress—accumulated in the infants’ hair from birth to six months.
When the monkeys reached 4–5 years of age, they were transferred to the main research station, where they were fed Purina Monkey Chow supplemented with fruits and vegetables and had free access to water. After several months of acclimation, the monkeys underwent neuroendocrine assessments, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans of their brains, and behavioral tests, including intravenous self-administration of cocaine.
The results showed that adolescent monkeys raised by abusive mothers had lower binding potential of serotonin 5HT1A receptors in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. They also showed reduced binding potential of 5HT2A receptors in the striatum and prefrontal cortex, as well as dopamine D2 receptors in the amygdala. Binding potential reflects the density and availability of specific receptor types in a brain region.
Notably, none of the neuroendocrine or behavioral measurements obtained early in life predicted the binding potential of the studied receptors.
“Our findings suggest that early caregiving experiences regulate the development of brain 5HT [serotonin] and DA [dopamine] systems in primates, resulting in long-term effects evident during adolescence,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on how early-life adversity affects the structure and function of the nervous system later in life. However, it is important to note that the research was conducted on rhesus monkeys, not humans. While humans and other primates share many similarities, they are distinct species with different developmental and environmental contexts. Therefore, findings in humans may not fully align with these results.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-023-01784-0) Alterations in adolescent brain serotonin (5HT)1A, 5HT2A, and dopamine (D)2 receptor systems in a nonhuman primate model of early life adversity,” was authored by Alison G. P. Wakeford, Jonathon A. Nye, Elyse L. Morin, Jiyoung Mun, Jerrold S. Meyer, Mark Goodman, Leonard L. Howell, and Mar M. Sanchez.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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