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(https://www.psypost.org/gender-inequality-varies-widely-across-u-s-states-linked-to-differences-in-metoo-engagement/) Gender inequality varies widely across U.S. states, linked to differences in #MeToo engagement
Aug 29th 2024, 10:00

Gender inequality remains a significant challenge across the globe, affecting all aspects of life from health and education to political representation and economic opportunities. Within the United States, a recent study published in (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121) PLOS ONE has introduced a new tool that enables researchers to compare gender inequality between different states, shedding light on the relationship between regional disparities, well-being, and participation in feminist movements like #MeToo.
While the Gender Inequality Index (GII) is widely used to compare gender disparities at the national level, there was a lack of tools specifically designed to measure these disparities within a country, such as between different states in the United States. The researchers sought to adapt the GII to a state-level version, termed the state-level Gender Inequality Index (GII-S), to provide more granular insights into how gender inequality varies across the United States.
“My interest in this topic stems from the pervasive issue of gender inequality and its broader implications. While much of the discourse around gender inequality focuses on its detrimental impact on women, I wanted to explore how these disparities challenge our collective societal progress,” said study co-author Bruno Gabriel Salvador Casara of New York University Abu Dhabi.
“Gender inequality is not just a women’s issue—it’s a societal one. Overcoming these inequalities is crucial if we aspire to create a world where everyone, regardless of gender, can live with dignity and satisfaction. By examining how gender inequality correlates with both online feminist activism and broader socio-structural factors, we aimed to contribute to the ongoing dialogue on how we can better understand and address these challenges.”
Study co-author Alice Lucarini of University of Modena and Reggio Emilia added: “In the fall of 2018, I was doing a visiting research period at the New York University, working alongside my co-authors on the consequences of delayed reports of sexual harassment on people’s perceptions of female victims. During that time, the #MeToo movement was gaining significant momentum, bringing the issue of gender inequality into sharp focus across the United States. The movement’s impact on public discourse was profound, revealing the extent to which gender-based disparities permeate various aspects of society.”
“That is when Dr. Salvador Casara, Prof. Suitner, Prof. Knowles and I began contemplating the idea of studying gender inequality and its implications not only at the interpersonal level but adopting a systemic, country-level perspective. As Dr. Casara pointed out, gender inequality is not just a women’s issue; it’s a societal issue that impacts everyone.”
“This led us to consider how gender inequality might be linked to broader socio-cultural factors and to collective behaviors, such as online participation in the #MeToo movement, which was rapidly becoming a barometer of societal attitudes toward gender inequality,” Lucarini explained. “By developing the GII-S (our state-level measure of gender inequality) we sought to capture these dynamics and contribute to a deeper understanding of how gender inequality operates not just in individual lives, but across different regions of the country.”
To calculate the GII-S scores, the researchers gathered data from multiple sources, focusing on three primary dimensions of gender inequality: health, labor, and political participation. These dimensions were chosen because they capture key aspects of gender disparities, such as differences in maternal mortality rates, labor force participation, and political representation. The data used in the analysis were from 2016, the most recent year for which complete information was available.
The researchers calculated GII-S scores for 47 out of the 50 U.S. states. Alaska, Hawaii, and Vermont were excluded from the analysis due to missing data on some of the indicators. Arkansas, Louisiana and Oklahoma scored highest for gender inequality, while Massachusetts, California and Maine scored lowest.
To validate the GII-S, the researchers then examined its relationship with several well-being indicators at the state level.
The researchers found that states with higher GII-S scores, indicating greater gender inequality, tended to have worse outcomes in multiple domains. For example, women in states with higher GII-S scores reported more health problems and rated their health more negatively compared to women in states with lower GII-S scores. This suggests that gender inequality may have a broad impact on women’s health, both objectively (in terms of specific health issues) and subjectively (in terms of how women perceive their overall health).
Financial well-being was also negatively associated with GII-S scores, particularly for women. In states with higher levels of gender inequality, women reported lower financial security, which could reflect broader economic challenges associated with gender disparities, such as lower wages and fewer employment opportunities for women.
The researchers also found that GII-S scores were linked to women’s perceptions of safety and life satisfaction. Women in states with higher gender inequality felt less safe and were less satisfied with their lives. This finding suggests that gender inequality may contribute to a sense of vulnerability and dissatisfaction among women, possibly due to factors like economic dependence or exposure to gender-based violence.
To explore the relationship between gender inequality and participation in the #MeToo movement, the researchers conducted a subsequent study. The #MeToo movement, which gained widespread attention on social media, particularly on Twitter, serves as a marker of feminist collective action. The researchers were interested in whether states with higher levels of gender inequality were less likely to engage in this form of activism.
To conduct this analysis, the researchers collected tweets containing the #MeToo hashtag from across the United States during a specific timeframe: January 18, 2019, to February 20, 2019. This period was chosen because it represented a peak in public engagement with the movement, as indicated by data from Google Trends. The researchers divided the tweets into two groups: those containing the #MeToo hashtag and a randomly selected sample of general tweets sent during the same period.
The researchers also gathered data on the political orientation of each state, using survey data from the Gallup U.S. Dailies. They created a scale to measure the overall political leaning of each state, ranging from very liberal to very conservative. This allowed them to explore whether political ideology influenced participation in the #MeToo movement, alongside gender inequality.
The researchers found that states with higher GII-S scores, indicating greater gender inequality, were less likely to produce tweets containing the #MeToo hashtag. This suggests that in states with higher levels of gender inequality, there may be lower levels of engagement with feminist collective action, such as the #MeToo movement. One possible explanation is that in environments where gender inequality is more entrenched, there may be less awareness of or support for feminist causes, leading to lower levels of public activism.
The study also examined the role of political orientation in this dynamic. The researchers found a significant correlation between state-level GII-S scores and political conservatism, with more conservative states tending to have higher levels of gender inequality.
However, when it came to participation in the #MeToo movement, political orientation alone did not show a strong relationship with the prevalence of #MeToo tweets. This suggests that while conservative political beliefs may be linked to higher gender inequality, they are not the sole determinant of engagement with feminist activism.
Moreover, the researchers conducted a model comparison analysis using Bayes Factors, a statistical tool that compares the strength of evidence for different models. They found that the model including GII-S scores as a predictor of #MeToo tweet prevalence was significantly stronger than models that included only political orientation or other factors. This indicates that gender inequality, as captured by the GII-S, is a more robust predictor of participation in the #MeToo movement than political ideology alone.
“One key takeaway from our studies is the interconnectedness of our online and offline worlds,” Salvador Casara told PsyPost. “Social media is often seen as a separate space, detached from reality, but our research demonstrates that online trends, such as participation in the #MeToo movement, are closely tied to the structural inequalities present in the real world. This suggests that the online activism we witness is not just a fleeting trend but a reflection of deeper societal issues. Understanding this connection highlights the importance of addressing gender inequality at its roots, as these disparities not only affect women’s lives offline but also shape the nature and extent of feminist activism online.”
“A key takeaway from our study is the need to approach gender inequality as a universal issue that affects everyone, regardless of gender,” Lucarini said. “Acknowledging that gender inequality has widespread negative effects can be crucial for raising awareness and mobilizing a broader population segment. Additionally, I agree with Dr. Casara that our research highlights the deep connection between the online and offline worlds. By demonstrating how real-world gender disparities are reflected in online activism, we’ve shown that social media discussions and movements are not isolated phenomena but are indicative of deeper structural issues.”
While the study provides valuable insights, it is not without its limitations. One of the primary limitations is that the findings are correlational, meaning they show associations between variables but do not prove causality. For example, while the study found a link between gender inequality and lower participation in the #MeToo movement, it cannot definitively say that gender inequality causes reduced participation. Other factors could be influencing both gender inequality and engagement in feminist activism.
The study, “(https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0306121) Unveiling gender inequality in the US: Testing validity of a state-level measure of gender inequality and its relationship with feminist online collective action on Twitter,” was authored by Bruno Gabriel Salvador Casara, Alice Lucarini, Eric D. Knowles, and Caterina Suitner.

(https://www.psypost.org/high-intensity-interval-training-might-help-with-premature-ejaculation/) High-intensity interval training might help with premature ejaculation
Aug 29th 2024, 08:00

A study in China found that practicing high-intensity interval training for 7 minutes per day reduced premature ejaculation symptoms after day 12. Men with better attention regulation and those with larger increases in heart rate after sex tended to have fewer premature ejaculation symptoms. The research was published in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100457) International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology.
Premature ejaculation is one of the most common sexual dysfunctions among men. It is characterized by the inability to delay ejaculation during sex, often occurring after minimal sexual stimulation. This issue can prevent sexual partners from achieving orgasm, leading to frustration and dissatisfaction in sexual relationships. The resulting strain can diminish an individual’s self-esteem and self-confidence, and may even contribute to mental health issues like depression and anxiety.
The causes of premature ejaculation are varied and complex. They can include psychological factors such as anxiety, stress, or relationship difficulties, as well as biological factors like hormonal imbalances or irregularities in neurotransmitter function. Treatment options range from behavioral techniques and counseling to medications, often involving a combination of these approaches. However, these treatments frequently prove to be ineffective, and medications can come with unwanted side effects. As a result, many men discontinue therapy before finding a solution, leaving the problem unresolved.
Study author Caoyuan Niu and his colleagues wanted to test whether high-intensity interval training and a slow breathing intervention could help reduce premature ejaculation. They also hypothesized that higher overall levels of physical activity and better attention regulation would be associated with fewer premature ejaculation symptoms.
High-intensity interval training (also known as HIIT) is a workout regimen that alternates between short bursts of intense exercise and periods of lower-intensity recovery or rest. It is designed to maximize cardiovascular and metabolic benefits in a shorter amount of time compared to traditional steady-state cardio exercises. Slow breathing is a technique that involves practicing deliberate, deep, and slow breaths to promote relaxation, reduce stress, and improve overall respiratory function.
To test their hypotheses, the researchers conducted a study with 76 heterosexual men aged 18 to 34. All participants were required to have a stable female sexual partner with whom they engaged in vaginal sex at least once a week. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups.
The first group practiced HIIT for seven minutes each day over a two-week period. The second group performed slow breathing exercises for the same duration, while the third group served as a control group, engaging in normal breathing exercises. The daily exercises were guided by instructional videos, and participants received 300 RMB (approximately $45) for their participation in the study.
To assess the effects of these interventions, the participants completed several questionnaires throughout the study. They filled out the Checklist for Early Ejaculation Symptoms to evaluate their symptoms over the six months prior to the study and continued to assess their symptoms daily during the study. They also measured their heart rates before and after each exercise session and after sex. Additionally, the researchers evaluated participants’ physical activity levels using the Physical Activity Questionnaire and their ability to regulate attention using the Attention Regulation subscale of the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness scale.
Results showed that premature ejaculation symptoms decreased in the high-intensity interval training group and in the control (normal breathing) group, but not in the slow breathing group. On days 12, 13, and 14 of the intervention, premature ejaculation symptoms were lower in the high-intensity interval training group compared to the control group.
Further analysis revealed that attention regulation scores improved across all three groups. This finding suggests that regardless of the intervention, simply focusing on the exercises or breathing might enhance participants’ ability to regulate attention, a skill that appears to be linked to better control over ejaculation. Moreover, the study found that men who had better attention regulation and who experienced a greater increase in heart rate from resting to post-sex tended to report fewer premature ejaculation symptoms. This correlation hints at the possibility that both physical exertion and cognitive focus during sexual activity may play roles in managing premature ejaculation.
“Compared to the control group, the efficacy of two weeks of HIIT exercise in mitigating PE [premature ejaculation] symptoms suggests its potential as a novel treatment for PE,” the study authors concluded.
The study hints at the possibility of using specific physical training regimens to alleviate premature ejaculation symptoms. However, all the data collected were based on self-reports, which can introduce biases. Participants were aware of the study’s goals and the intervention group they were in, which could have influenced their responses—a phenomenon known as the Hawthorne effect. This effect occurs when individuals modify their behavior in response to being observed or because they know they are part of an experiment, potentially skewing the results.
Another limitation is the relatively short duration of the interventions. While the study demonstrated that HIIT can reduce symptoms of premature ejaculation in just two weeks, it is unclear whether these benefits are sustained over a longer period. Additionally, the study’s sample was limited to young men, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to older populations or men with different health conditions.
Future research should aim to replicate these findings with larger and more diverse samples, including older men and those with varying levels of physical fitness. It would also be beneficial to explore the long-term effects of HIIT on premature ejaculation and to compare these results with other non-pharmaceutical interventions. Furthermore, continuous heart rate monitoring during the exercise sessions could provide more detailed insights into how physical exertion relates to sexual function.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100457) High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and slow breathing interventions alleviate premature ejaculation (PE) symptoms,” was authored by Caoyuan Niu, Guangju Wen, Daniel Ventus, Patrick Jern, Thomas J. Nyman, Yansong Li, and Pekka Santtila.

(https://www.psypost.org/study-reveals-extreme-surge-in-suicidal-ideation-following-robin-williams-death/) Study reveals extreme surge in suicidal ideation following Robin Williams’ death
Aug 29th 2024, 06:00

In 2014, the world was shocked by the sudden death of beloved actor Robin Williams, who died by suicide. Four years later, the deaths of fashion designer Kate Spade and chef Anthony Bourdain, occurring just days apart, created a similar wave of grief and confusion.
These high-profile suicides did not just ripple through the media; they had a measurable impact on public mental health. A recent study from Columbia University, published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adq4074) Science Advances, reveals how these tragic events led to significant spikes in suicidal thoughts and behaviors across the United States.
While individual factors like psychiatric disorders and life stressors are well-known drivers of suicide, there is also evidence that exposure to suicidal behavior can trigger suicidal thoughts in vulnerable individuals.
This process, known as suicide contagion, has been observed in localized clusters, such as within schools or communities, but its effects on a larger scale, such as at the national level following a high-profile suicide, are less well understood. The researchers at Columbia sought to fill this gap by developing a model that could capture the dynamics of suicide contagion in response to these widely publicized deaths.
The researchers developed a mathematical model designed to simulate the dynamics of suicide contagion, treating it in a way similar to how infectious diseases are modeled. This model allowed them to estimate how news of the suicides of Robin Williams, Kate Spade, and Anthony Bourdain influenced suicidal thoughts and behaviors across the United States.
“I’m an infectious disease modeler. The transmission of infectious agents is, in some fashion, analogous to the spread of news, information, misinformation and ideas,” explained (https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/jeffrey-shaman-phd) Jeffrey Shaman, study co-author, interim dean of Columbia Climate School, and professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, who is well-known for developing models of influenza and SARS-CoV-2.
“This project arose from a conversation with (https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/katherine-m-keyes-phd) Katherine Keyes, one of my co-authors, in which we were discussing the idea of suicide contagion. From this, and further reading, we came to realize that while suicide contagion is an often-discussed concept, there were almost no mathematical frameworks dynamically depicting the spread of suicidal ideation and behavior. So we decided to develop such a system and pair it with data to represent suicide contagion in the real world . We felt it an important topic for investigation–one with clear public health implications.”
To construct their model, the researchers utilized two primary data sources. The first was the weekly call volumes to the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline, now known as the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline. This data served as an indicator of suicidal ideation—the thoughts about suicide that people experience.
The second data source was the mortality records from the National Vital Statistics System, which provided information on suicide deaths nationwide. By combining these data sets, the researchers could estimate the extent of suicidal thoughts and the actual suicide deaths that occurred in the aftermath of these celebrity suicides.
The model divided the population into three distinct categories: individuals not currently thinking about suicide, individuals who are thinking about suicide, and those who have died by suicide. It also accounted for how individuals might transition between these states over time, particularly after a triggering event like a celebrity suicide.
The model included parameters to represent the likelihood of someone beginning to think about suicide due to exposure to another’s suicidal behavior or death, effectively treating these thoughts and actions as something that could spread through a population, much like a virus.
Following Robin Williams’ death in 2014, the model estimated a thousand-fold increase in the rate at which people began to experience suicidal thoughts due to the contagious nature of suicide. This significant increase in suicidal ideation was evident in the substantial spike in calls to the 988 Lifeline and in the rise of suicide deaths observed in the data.
“I was surprised by how extreme the response was,” Shaman said.
A similar, though less intense, pattern was seen after the 2018 deaths of Kate Spade and Anthony Bourdain, where the contagion rates were about half of those following Williams’ death. Despite these differences in magnitude, both events triggered a sharp increase in suicidal thoughts and actions, with the contagion effects peaking within two weeks before gradually returning to normal levels.
“Celebrity suicides affect many people,” Shaman told PsyPost. “Our affinity for or identification with the decedent can make some begin to ideate suicide and others to attempt suicide. The risk is most acute immediately after the first news of the suicide. By understanding this phenomenon, and by quantifying how much suicide contagion increases and for how long, we can better understand the risk and when and how to manage messaging.”
But the researchers point out that their model, while sophisticated, is just one of many possible approaches to understanding suicide contagion. Additional models should be developed and tested to explore different types of exposure and to simulate suicide contagion at more localized scales, such as within specific communities or social networks.
The model’s assumptions, such as the rate at which individuals lose susceptibility to suicide contagion, need further empirical validation. This could involve studying different types of contagion, such as those that occur in response to media portrayals of suicide or other forms of social influence.
“More studies, including with different model forms, for different populations, and using different data are needed,” Shaman said. “Is the response consistent across such (future) studies —this is important to determine.”
Despite these limitations, the study represents a significant step forward in understanding how suicide can spread through a population. “Ultimately, our aim is to work toward a point where a suicide contagion model can inform a rapid response geared at preventing suicide,” said Keyes, a professor of epidemiology and director of SPIRT, a new initiative at Columbia University designed to foster collaborative public health research focused on deepening our understanding of the mental health crisis and developing effective solutions.
The study, “(https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq4074) Quantifying suicide contagion at population scale,” was authored by Jeffrey Shaman, Sasikiran Kandula, Sen Pei, Marta Galanti, Mark Olfson, Madelyn Gould, and Katherine Keyes.

(https://www.psypost.org/how-artists-unique-cognitive-skills-enhance-their-drawing-abilities/) How artists’ unique cognitive skills enhance their drawing abilities
Aug 28th 2024, 12:00

Artists often captivate us with their ability to translate the world around them into stunningly realistic drawings. But what cognitive processes enable such skill? A recent study sheds light on this question, revealing that art students possess a unique flexibility in how they process visual information. They can switch between focusing on small details and grasping the overall structure of an object, but interestingly, they tend to start with a global perspective when beginning a drawing. These findings, published in the journal (https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/aca0000424) Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, suggest that artists have a perceptual edge that may explain their superior drawing abilities.
Creating a realistic drawing is more than just a creative endeavor; it’s a complex cognitive task that requires the artist to break down what they see into manageable parts while also maintaining an awareness of the overall structure. Previous research has indicated that artists might excel at this balance between local and global processing, but the specifics of how they manage this balance—particularly in comparison to non-artists—were not well understood. Additionally, some research suggested a possible overlap between the skills artists use and the cognitive traits associated with autism, where individuals often exhibit a strong focus on details at the expense of the broader picture.
Given these intriguing possibilities, the researchers sought to investigate several key questions: Do artists naturally gravitate toward focusing on details or the overall structure when they start a drawing? How do their skills in processing local versus global information compare to non-artists? And is there a relationship between these processing abilities and their drawing accuracy?
To explore these questions, the researchers recruited two groups of participants: 40 first-year art students from the Pratt Institute, a selective art and design school, and 41 non-art students from a large public university. The art students were selected based on their artistic skills and represented various design disciplines, while the non-art students had no formal art training.
Participants completed a series of tasks designed to measure their ability to process visual information both locally and globally. For local processing, tasks included the Mental Rotation Task, where participants had to determine whether pairs of objects were the same or different when rotated, and the Embedded Figures Test, which required finding a simple shape hidden within a complex pattern. Global processing was assessed using tasks like the Out-of-Focus Pictures Task, where participants had to identify blurry images, and the Coherent Form Task, which tested their ability to integrate scattered visual information into a recognizable shape.
In addition to these tasks, participants were asked to complete drawing tasks, including a still-life and a face drawing, which were rated for accuracy by non-artist judges. They also participated in a copying task, where they had to reproduce complex line drawings while researchers recorded the sequence of their marks to determine whether they started by focusing on the overall form (a global approach) or by detailing specific parts (a local approach).
The researchers found that art students outperformed non-art students on both local and global processing tasks, indicating a general cognitive advantage in visual information processing. Specifically, art students excelled at tasks that required them to break down complex visual information into its components (local processing) and those that required them to integrate fragmented information into a whole (global processing).
Interestingly, when it came to the copying task, both groups showed a preference for starting with global features, but this tendency was stronger among the art students. On the more complex Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure task, which required participants to copy a detailed figure, art students were more likely than non-art students to begin by outlining the overall structure before filling in the details.
This preference for starting globally was also linked to higher accuracy in the drawing tasks. In other words, those who initially focused on the big picture tended to produce more accurate drawings, suggesting that global processing plays a critical role in realistic drawing.
The study provides new insights into the cognitive processes underlying artistic expertise, but it does have some limitations. The tasks used to assess local and global processing, though carefully chosen, may not capture all aspects of these complex cognitive abilities. Additionally, the study’s findings are based on first-year art students, so it is unclear whether the differences observed are a result of prior training or innate abilities. Future research could explore how these processing abilities develop over time and whether they can be trained or enhanced through education.
Another interesting finding was that art students did not report more autistic-related traits than non-art students, despite the hypothesis that attention to detail—a trait often associated with autism—might be more pronounced among artists. This suggests that while both artists and individuals with autism may excel in local processing, the underlying cognitive mechanisms might differ.
In future studies, it would be interesting to examine how artists and individuals with autism compare when performing tasks that require a balance between local and global processing, such as drawing from observation. Researchers could also investigate whether the global processing advantage observed in artists extends to other creative tasks or fields, such as design and architecture, and how these skills might be applied in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines.
The study, “(https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-94704-001) Artists Have Superior Local and Global Processing Abilities but Show a Preference for Initially Drawing Globally,” was authored by Jennifer E. Drake, Ariana Riccio, Rebecca Chamberlain, and Aaron Kozbelt.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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