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(https://www.psypost.org/gravity-changes-may-disrupt-sleep-more-than-we-realize/) Gravity changes may disrupt sleep more than we realize
Aug 24th 2024, 10:00

A recent study examining the sleep patterns of healthy men and women who participated in a parabolic flight—an experience that exposes individuals to brief periods of microgravity and hypergravity—revealed surprising results. According to actigraphy, a method used to objectively measure sleep by tracking movement, participants experienced more fragmented sleep and more frequent awakenings on the night following the flight compared to the night before. Strangely, however, these individuals self-reported that they slept better on the night after the flight. The findings were published in the (https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.14279) Journal of Sleep Research.
As space travel expands and humanity endeavors to become an interplanetary species by colonizing Mars and potentially other celestial bodies, the number of individuals residing in space for prolonged periods will increase. In parallel with this, scientific knowledge about the effects of space flight on human physiology is growing. However, much remains unknown, especially regarding how the unique environment of space—characterized by the absence of gravity—impacts human health, including sleep.
The International Space Station (ISS) has been instrumental in advancing our knowledge in this area. The ISS is a large, habitable spacecraft that orbits Earth and is continuously occupied by astronauts who spend weeks and months at a time living and working there. Research indicates that astronauts on the ISS, who experience prolonged weightlessness, often suffer from severe sleep problems. These issues tend to resolve once they return to Earth, suggesting a link between gravity and sleep quality.
But whether these sleep disturbances are caused solely by changes in gravity or by a combination of other factors, such as altered light exposure, diet, noise, and elevated stress levels during spaceflight, is still unclear.
Study author Barbara Le Roy and her colleagues aimed to isolate the effects of gravity changes on sleep by focusing on participants of parabolic flights. Parabolic flights are designed to simulate the conditions of space by creating brief periods of weightlessness through a series of steep, curved flight maneuvers. During each parabola, the aircraft first climbs sharply, generating increased gravity (hypergravity), before descending in a free-fall motion, which simulates the microgravity of space for about 20 to 30 seconds. These flights are not only used for astronaut training and scientific research but are also available as commercial experiences for the public.
To investigate how these gravity changes affect sleep, Le Roy and her team asked participants to wear actigraphs—a wrist-worn device that tracks movement and is used to assess sleep patterns—on the night before and the night after the flight. Participants also filled out sleep diaries and completed questionnaires about their sleep quality, anxiety, and depression. The researchers hypothesized that the gravity changes experienced during the flight would lead to poorer sleep quality on the night after the flight.
How the Study Was Conducted
The study involved participants from three different parabolic flights, conducted by Novespace between October 2022 and April 2023 in Bordeaux Mérignac, France. These flights took place aboard an Airbus 310 Zero-G aircraft, with each flight starting at around 9 a.m. and consisting of 31 parabolas. Each parabola began with a hypergravity phase, where participants experienced approximately 1.8 times the normal gravitational force (1.8 g) for about 20 seconds, followed by a microgravity phase lasting approximately 22 seconds. To mitigate the risk of motion sickness, all but one participant took scopolamine, an anti-nausea medication, on the morning before the flight.
In addition to wearing actigraphs, participants completed two sleep quality assessments: the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, which measures sleep quality over the past month, and a visual analogue scale where participants rated their sleep quality. Anxiety and depression levels were also assessed using the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, respectively.
Actigraphy data showed that participants’ sleep was more fragmented on the night after the parabolic flight, with more awakenings compared to the night before. This objective data suggested that the experience of gravity changes negatively impacted sleep quality. However, when participants were asked to self-report their sleep experience, they indicated that they slept better on the night after the flight. They reported fewer awakenings, feeling more rested, and having better overall sleep quality.
This discrepancy between perceived and actual sleep quality raises interesting questions about the influence of gravity changes on sleep. One possible explanation is that the novelty and excitement of the parabolic flight might have created a positive bias in participants’ self-assessment of their sleep. Alternatively, the longer sleep duration observed in some participants after the flight might have led them to feel more rested, even if their sleep was more fragmented.
Importantly, the researchers found no significant association between the amount of scopolamine taken or the participants’ previous experience with parabolic flights and their sleep quality. Interestingly, participants who typically had poorer sleep quality or more sleep problems seemed to experience less sleep fragmentation and fewer awakenings after the flight. This finding suggests that individuals with pre-existing sleep issues might be less sensitive to the disruptive effects of gravity changes.
“Our results revealed a sharp discrepancy between subjective and objective sleep data. Though participants reported having better sleep quality the night after the flight, waking up less, and feeling more rested, actigraphy data showed that they had more awakenings, more sleep fragmentation, and that the actual sleep percentage was lower. These preliminary findings show that having been exposed to daytime gravity changes may affect nighttime sleep, even when other factors such as diet, circadian rhythm and sleep conditions are kept constant,” the study authors concluded.
The study potentially sheds light on the effects of gravity changes on sleep quality. However, it should be noted that parabolic flights involve relatively short-lasting changes in gravity, not the extended periods of microgravity typical of spaceflight. It is unclear how much parabolic flight experiences can be considered a valid simulation of actual spaceflight conditions.
The paper, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.14279) Is sleep affected after microgravity and hypergravity exposure? A pilot study,” was authored by Barbara Le Roy, Aurore Jouvencel, Anika Friedl-Werner, Ludmila Renel, Youcef Cherchali, Raouf Osseiran, Ernesto Sanz-Arigita, Jean-René Cazalets, Etienne Guillaud, and Ellemarije Altena.

(https://www.psypost.org/bed-sharing-with-infants-new-study-suggests-no-impact-on-emotional-and-behavioral-development/) Bed-sharing with infants: New study suggests no impact on emotional and behavioral development
Aug 24th 2024, 08:00

For parents wondering whether sharing a bed with their infant might affect their child’s emotional and behavioral development, a recent study provides some reassuring news. The research, published in the journal (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616734.2024.2380427) Attachment & Human Development, found that bed-sharing at 9 months old is not linked to emotional or behavioral problems later in childhood. This finding is significant as it challenges long-standing concerns about the potential negative impacts of this common parenting practice.
Bed-sharing, where parents and infants sleep in the same bed, is a practice deeply rooted in many cultures. While some see it as beneficial, providing security, warmth, and easier access for nighttime feedings, others argue it could pose risks, such as an increased chance of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.
Despite its prevalence and the passionate debate surrounding it, surprisingly little scientific research has focused on the long-term effects of bed-sharing, especially in terms of emotional and behavioral outcomes for children. Ayten Bilgin from the Department of Psychology led this study to address these gaps in our understanding.
The researchers aimed to clarify whether bed-sharing during infancy has any lasting influence on a child’s development, particularly concerning emotional stability and behavioral tendencies. Given the conflicting views on the subject, this study sought to provide empirical evidence that could help guide parents in making informed decisions about their sleeping arrangements.
The study utilized data from the Millennium Cohort Study, a large, nationally representative longitudinal study from the United Kingdom. This cohort followed over 18,000 infants born in the early 2000s, tracking their development through various stages of childhood. For this particular research, the focus was on children who were bed-sharing at 9 months of age and their subsequent emotional and behavioral development up until they were 11 years old.
To assess emotional and behavioral outcomes, the researchers used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, a widely respected tool for measuring psychological adjustment in children. This questionnaire, completed by parents when the children were 3, 5, 7, and 11 years old, allowed the researchers to track patterns of internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety and depression, and externalizing symptoms, like aggression and hyperactivity, over time.
The study also accounted for several other factors that could influence a child’s development, including gender, socio-economic status, night-waking frequency, breastfeeding practices, maternal psychological distress, and parenting beliefs. By considering these variables, the researchers aimed to isolate the specific impact of bed-sharing on child development.
After analyzing the data, the researchers identified four distinct developmental trajectories for emotional and behavioral symptoms in the children studied:

Low stable internalizing and externalizing symptoms: The majority of children (56.5%) showed consistently low levels of emotional and behavioral problems across childhood.
Low increasing internalizing and moderate decreasing externalizing symptoms: About 27.2% of children started with low internalizing symptoms that increased over time, while their externalizing symptoms decreased.
Moderate decreasing internalizing and externalizing symptoms: A smaller group (7.5%) exhibited moderate levels of both internalizing and externalizing symptoms that decreased as they aged.
Low increasing internalizing and high stable externalizing symptoms: The final group (8.9%) had low internalizing symptoms that increased significantly over time, alongside high and stable levels of externalizing symptoms.

Interestingly, while bed-sharing at 9 months was more common among children in the groups with elevated symptoms, the researchers found no direct evidence linking bed-sharing to an increased risk of these symptoms once other factors were taken into account. In other words, after considering variables like parenting beliefs and maternal distress, bed-sharing itself did not predict whether a child would belong to one of the higher-risk groups.
This finding is crucial because it suggests that bed-sharing, in and of itself, is not harmful to a child’s emotional or behavioral development. The study did not find any evidence that bed-sharing either prevents or causes emotional and behavioral issues later in childhood. Instead, other factors, such as the family’s overall stress levels and parenting styles, seem to play a more significant role.
However, there are limitations that should be considered. For one, bed-sharing was only assessed at 9 months of age. The researchers did not have data on whether the practice started earlier or continued beyond this age, which might influence long-term outcomes. Additionally, the study relied on parental reports for both bed-sharing practices and emotional and behavioral assessments, which could introduce bias.
Another limitation is the lack of distinction between intentional bed-sharing, where parents actively choose to sleep with their baby, and reactive bed-sharing, where parents bring their baby into bed out of desperation due to frequent night-waking. Previous studies have suggested that these different forms of bed-sharing might have different impacts on family dynamics and, consequently, on child development. Future research could explore these nuances more deeply, perhaps incorporating objective measures of sleep and more detailed psychological assessments.
Moreover, the impact of bed-sharing on the family unit as a whole, including marital and co-parenting relationships, warrants further investigation. Some evidence suggests that prolonged bed-sharing can strain parental relationships, potentially leading to greater family stress, which in turn could affect children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes.
For parents weighing the pros and cons of bed-sharing, this study offers some peace of mind. As Bilgin notes, “Parents can rest assured that as long as it’s practiced safely, bed-sharing is unlikely to have any negative impact on children’s emotional and behavioral development.” This finding helps to alleviate some of the guilt and shame that can accompany the decision to bed-share, especially in cultures where the practice is viewed with skepticism.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2024.2380427) Associations between bed-sharing in infancy and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms,” was authored by Ayten Bilgin, Isabel Morales-Muñoz, Catherine Winsper, and Dieter Wolke.

(https://www.psypost.org/scientists-observe-a-remarkable-synchronization-effect-among-classical-music-listeners/) Scientists observe a remarkable synchronization effect among classical music listeners
Aug 24th 2024, 06:00

Picture yourself at a classical music concert, enveloped by the sweeping melodies of Beethoven or Brahms. As you listen, you may not realize that your heart rate and breathing are subtly syncing with those of the people around you. A new study has shown that the shared experience of live music creates a remarkable physiological bond among audience members, revealing the profound impact of music on the human body. The research has been published in (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-67455-2) Scientific Reports.
Previous research has shown that when people interact, their movements, speech patterns, and even physiological responses can become aligned. This phenomenon, known as interpersonal synchrony, has been studied in various contexts, from conversations between friends to therapeutic settings.
However, much less is known about how this synchrony might occur in settings where interaction is minimal, such as during a classical music concert. The researchers hypothesized that even in these passive settings, where listeners are not consciously interacting with one another, the shared experience of the music could lead to a kind of physiological entrainment among audience members.
“Synchrony is an important part of social interaction, and psychology has started to measure how much people become synchronized in different settings (psychotherapy sessions, spouses’ discussions, conversations). We have found that the synchrony phenomenon arises generally, in diverse contexts. Here, I have turned to a novel field, the responses to concerts measured in audiences, where we also applied the methods of synchrony research,” said study author (https://www.embodiment.ch/) Wolfgang Tschacher, professor emeritus at the University of Bern.
To test this hypothesis, the researchers organized a series of eleven public concerts in Berlin, featuring pieces by Ludwig van Beethoven, Johannes Brahms, and contemporary composer Brett Dean. The concerts were part of the “(https://experimental-concert-research.org/?lang=en) Experimental Concert Research” project, which seeks to understand the concert experience from multiple angles, combining insights from musicology, cultural management, and psychology.
Participants in the study were members of the concert audience who agreed to wear sensors that recorded their heart rate, skin conductance, and breathing throughout the performance. In total, 695 participants, with an average age of 44, took part in the study. Most of the participants had a university degree, and the majority were female. Before and after each concert, the participants completed questionnaires assessing their mood, personality traits, and their experience of the music.
The physiological data collected during the concerts were analyzed to determine the extent to which participants’ bodily responses were synchronized. The researchers used a sophisticated statistical method that measures the degree of correlation between the physiological signals of different individuals in the audience. They found that heart rate, heart rate variability (a measure of the time variation between heartbeats), skin conductance, and breathing rate were all significantly synchronized across the audience.
“Concert music moves audiences bodily,” Tschacher told PsyPost. “Music reaches not just the minds (the cognition and experiences of people), but also their bodies such as heart rate, breathing, body movement. This is called ’embodied cognition.'”
“Thus, synchrony is a natural phenomenon that dominates social life, starting from private interactions between two persons up to group and mass behavior. Synchrony is found in body movement (‘body language’), in physiology and also in brain dynamics: There are different levels of synchronization. Being a concert listener means you become part of a multi-person system. The more you appreciate the music and focus on it, the more you become a part of this system.”
However, the timing of inhalations and exhalations did not show significant synchronization, suggesting that while the music had a powerful effect on the audience’s overall physiological state, it did not induce the kind of precise, rhythmic breathing often seen in activities like singing or chanting. “We found repeatedly that respiration rate becomes synchronized, but not the breathing-in and breathing-out,” Tschacher said.
The researchers also looked at how these physiological synchronies related to changes in mood. They found that increases in heart rate synchrony were associated with a decrease in negative emotions, while increases in skin conductance synchrony were linked to an increase in positive emotions. This suggests that the more synchronized the audience members were with each other, the more their negative feelings diminished and their positive feelings grew during the concert.
In addition to mood, the researchers examined the relationship between physiological synchrony and personality traits. They found that participants who scored high on measures of openness—a trait associated with a love of new experiences and a strong interest in the arts—tended to be more synchronized with the rest of the audience.
In contrast, those who were more extroverted or neurotic—traits associated with a focus on social interaction and a tendency toward anxiety—were less synchronized. This indicates that personality may influence how deeply individuals connect with the music on a physiological level, with those more open to new experiences being more likely to “sync up” with others.
Interestingly, the study also revealed that different types of listening experiences were associated with different levels of synchrony. For example, participants who reported being emotionally moved by the music were less synchronized with the rest of the audience. On the other hand, those who focused on the structure of the music—such as its melodies, rhythm, and harmony—or who paid close attention to the sounds of individual instruments, showed higher levels of synchrony.
The researchers also found that the degree of synchronization varied depending on the piece of music being performed. Brett Dean’s contemporary work, which was generally the least liked by participants, produced the highest levels of synchrony, while Beethoven’s more familiar music, which was better received, produced the lowest levels. This counterintuitive finding suggests that synchronization may not necessarily be tied to how much listeners enjoy the music, but rather to how closely they follow and engage with it.
Future research could explore how these findings might apply to other forms of music or other types of performance. For instance, would a rock concert produce similar levels of physiological synchrony, or is this phenomenon unique to the more contemplative environment of a classical music performance? Additionally, researchers could investigate whether similar effects occur in other settings where people share a common experience but do not interact directly, such as watching a movie in a theater or attending a religious service.
“I am about to analyze the synchrony in specific short moments of the music,” Tschacher said. “I will study which aspect of music (frequency, loudness, tempo?) specifically entails people’s synchrony.”
“I would like to invite researchers to do their own synchrony research with our published methods, instructions and links to R packages are given on (https://www.embodiment.ch/) my website,” he added.
The study, “(https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-67455-2) Physiological audience synchrony in classical concerts linked with listeners’ experiences and attitudes,” was authored by Wolfgang Tschacher, Steven Greenwood, Christian Weining, Melanie Wald-Fuhrmann, Chandrasekhar Ramakrishnan, Christoph Seibert, and Martin Tröndle.

(https://www.psypost.org/just-10-minutes-of-mindfulness-per-day-enhances-mental-health-and-motivates-healthier-habits/) Just 10 minutes of mindfulness per day enhances mental health and motivates healthier habits
Aug 23rd 2024, 16:00

In a new study published in the (https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjhp.12745) British Journal of Health Psychology, researchers from the Universities of Bath and Southampton have found that just 10 minutes of daily mindfulness practice can significantly enhance mental well-being. This brief daily practice, facilitated through a free mobile app called Medito, was found to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety, boost overall well-being, and even motivate healthier lifestyle choices.
The study’s findings are particularly noteworthy because they demonstrate that these benefits can be achieved through a simple, widely accessible digital intervention. By delivering mindfulness training via a mobile app, the researchers have shown that substantial mental health improvements are possible without the need for intensive, in-person programs.
The researchers were motivated by the growing evidence that mindfulness-based interventions can significantly improve mental health. However, while traditional mindfulness programs typically require significant time and effort—often involving eight-week courses with in-person sessions—the researchers wanted to explore whether similar benefits could be achieved through a more accessible, digital approach.
To explore this, the researchers conducted a large-scale, randomized controlled trial involving 1,247 adults from 91 countries. The participants were recruited through social media and the Medito app itself, with the study running remotely to maximize accessibility and reach. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the mindfulness intervention group or an active control group.
The mindfulness group was instructed to engage in a daily 10-minute mindfulness practice using the Medito app’s “30-Day Challenge” course, designed for beginners. This course included a variety of mindfulness exercises, such as body scans and focused breathing, aimed at fostering present-moment awareness and reducing stress. The control group, on the other hand, listened to 10-minute audiobook excerpts from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” and “Through the Looking Glass,” which were chosen to match the mindfulness practice in terms of time and attention required, but without the active mindfulness component.
Throughout the study, participants completed a series of questionnaires designed to assess their mental health, well-being, and health-related behaviors. These assessments were conducted at three key points: before the intervention (baseline), immediately after the 30-day practice period, and two months later (follow-up). The researchers analyzed the data to compare changes in mental health and lifestyle behaviors between the two groups.
The study revealed that participants who practiced mindfulness daily experienced significant improvements in their mental health compared to those in the control group. Specifically, the mindfulness group reported higher levels of psychological well-being, as measured by the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale. They also showed a marked reduction in symptoms of depression and anxiety, as assessed by the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale.
“This study highlights that even short, daily practices of mindfulness can offer benefits, making it a simple yet powerful tool for enhancing mental health,” said study author Masha Remskar of the University of Bath.
“The research underscores how digital technology – in this case, a freely available app – can help people integrate behavioural and psychological techniques into their lives, in a way that suits them,” added co-author Ben Ainsworth, who leads the Digital Intervention Group at the University of Southampton.
Interestingly, these mental health benefits were not only evident immediately after the 30-day mindfulness practice but were also sustained two months later. This suggests that the positive effects of mindfulness practice can have a lasting impact, even after the formal training period has ended.
In addition to these mental health improvements, the mindfulness group also demonstrated healthier lifestyle behaviors. They reported better sleep quality and showed greater motivation to engage in health-promoting activities, such as regular exercise and healthy eating. These findings suggest that mindfulness practice may help individuals develop the psychological skills needed to adopt and maintain healthier habits.
“It is exciting to see that such a light-touch, affordable, intervention that has the potential to reach a large global audience can have an impact on healthy lifestyle behaviours. It is even more encouraging that these benefits were sustained after the mindfulness course ended, suggesting this practice can help build sustainable habits,” said co-author Max Western from the University of Bath.
While the study’s findings are promising, there are several limitations to consider. First, the study relied on self-reported measures of mental health and behavior, which can be subject to bias. For example, participants may have been more likely to report improvements due to their awareness of being part of a mindfulness study. Additionally, the high attrition rate—only about 24% of participants completed the study—could have introduced bias, as those who dropped out may have had different experiences than those who remained.
Another limitation is the lack of objective measures of health behaviors. While the study focused on health-related cognitions, such as attitudes and intentions, it did not directly measure whether participants actually engaged in healthier behaviors, like exercising more or eating better. Future research could address this gap by including objective measures, such as physical activity trackers or dietary logs, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how mindfulness practice influences behavior.
Despite these limitations, the study opens up exciting avenues for future research. The researchers suggest that further studies could explore how mindfulness influences specific health behaviors, such as physical activity or smoking cessation, by targeting these behaviors directly in the intervention. Additionally, investigating the long-term effects of digital mindfulness interventions on mental health and lifestyle behaviors could provide valuable insights into how these practices can be integrated into public health strategies.
The study, “(https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12745) Mindfulness improves psychological health and supports health behaviour cognitions: Evidence from a pragmatic RCT of a digital mindfulness-based intervention,” was authored by Masha Remskar, Max J. Western, and Ben Ainsworth.

(https://www.psypost.org/toxoplasma-gondii-why-a-brain-parasite-could-be-the-key-to-treating-neurological-diseases/) Toxoplasma gondii: Why a brain parasite could be the key to treating neurological diseases
Aug 23rd 2024, 14:00

Parasites (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001920) take an enormous toll on human and veterinary health. But researchers may have found a way for patients with brain disorders and a common brain parasite to become frenemies.
A new study published in (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-024-01750-6) Nature Microbiology has pioneered the use of a single-celled parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, to inject therapeutic proteins into brain cells. The (https://theconversation.com/our-blood-brain-barrier-stops-bugs-and-toxins-getting-to-our-brain-heres-how-it-works-230965) brain is very picky about what it lets in, including many drugs, which limits treatment options for neurological conditions.
As a (https://medicine.iu.edu/faculty/13502/sullivan-william) professor of microbiology, I’ve dedicated my career to finding ways to kill dangerous parasites such as Toxoplasma. I’m fascinated by the prospect that we may be able to use their weaponry to instead treat other maladies.
Microbes as medicine
Ever since scientists realized that microscopic organisms can cause illness – what’s called the 19th-century (https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/contagion/feature/germ-theory) germ theory of disease – humanity has been on a quest to keep infectious agents out of our bodies. Many people’s understandable aversion to germs may make the idea of adapting these microbial adversaries for therapeutic purposes seem counterintuitive.
But preventing and treating disease by co-opting the very microbes that threaten us has a history that long predates germ theory. (https://doi.org/10.1258%2Fjrsm.2012.12k044) As early as the 1500s, people in the Middle East and Asia noted that those lucky enough to survive smallpox never got infected again. These observations led to the practice of purposefully exposing an uninfected person to the material from an infected person’s pus-filled sores – which unbeknownst to them contained weakened smallpox virus – to protect them from severe disease.
This (https://theconversation.com/benjamin-franklins-fight-against-a-deadly-virus-colonial-america-was-divided-over-smallpox-inoculation-but-he-championed-science-to-skeptics-161569) concept of inoculation (https://theconversation.com/lady-mary-wortley-montagu-the-forgotten-immunisation-pioneer-164256) has yielded a (https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd/vaccines-list.html) plethora of vaccines that have saved countless lives.
Viruses, bacteria and parasites have also evolved many tricks to penetrate organs such as the brain and could be (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40199-019-00291-2) retooled to deliver drugs into the body. Such uses could include (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-021-00487-6) viruses for gene therapy and (https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(22)00276-X) intestinal bacteria to treat a gut infection known as (https://www.cdc.gov/c-diff/index.html) C. diff.
Why can’t we just take a pill for brain diseases?
Pills offer a convenient and effective way to get medicine into the body. (https://www.drugs.com/drug-classes.html#B) Chemical drugs such as aspirin or penicillin are small and easily absorbed from the gut into the bloodstream.
(https://theconversation.com/biologics-the-pricey-drugs-transforming-medicine-80258) Biologic drugs such as insulin or semaglutide, on the other hand, are large and complex molecules that are vulnerable to breaking down in the stomach before they can be absorbed. They are also too big to pass through the intestinal wall into the bloodstream.
All drugs, especially biologics, have great difficulty penetrating the brain due to the (https://theconversation.com/our-blood-brain-barrier-stops-bugs-and-toxins-getting-to-our-brain-heres-how-it-works-230965) blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is a layer of cells lining the brain’s blood vessels that acts like a gatekeeper to block germs and other unwanted substances from gaining access to neurons.
Toxoplasma offers delivery service to brain cells
Toxoplasma parasites (https://doi.org/10.1079/ahr2005100) infect all animals, including humans. Infection can occur in multiple ways, including ingesting spores released in the stool of infected cats or consuming contaminated meat or water. (https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html) Toxoplasmosis in otherwise healthy people produces only mild symptoms but can be serious in immunocompromised people and to (https://theconversation.com/toxoplasma-is-a-common-parasite-that-causes-birth-defects-but-the-us-doesnt-screen-for-it-during-pregnancy-232936) gestating fetusus.
Unlike most pathogens, Toxoplasma can cross the blood-brain barrier and invade brain cells. Once inside neurons, the parasite releases a suite of proteins that (https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00005-17) alter gene expression in its host, which may be a factor in the (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.11.012) behavioral changes it causes in infected animals and people.

In a new study, a global team of researchers (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-024-01750-6) hijacked the system Toxoplasma uses to secrete proteins into its host cell. The team genetically engineered Toxoplasma to make a hybrid protein, fusing one of its secreted proteins to a (https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/mecp2/) protein called MeCP2, which regulates gene activity in the brain – in effect, giving the MeCP2 a piggyback ride into neurons. Researchers found that the parasites secreted the MeCP2 protein hybrid into neurons grown in a petri dish as well as in the brains of infected mice.
A genetic deficiency in MECP2 causes a rare brain development disorder called (https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rett-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20377227) Rett syndrome. Gene therapy trials (https://www.rettsyndrome.org/clinical-trial-news-updates/) using viruses to deliver the MeCP2 protein to treat Rett syndrome are underway. If Toxoplasma can deliver a form of MeCP2 protein into brain cells, it may provide another option to treat this currently incurable condition. It also may offer another treatment option for other neurological problems that arise from errant proteins, (https://theconversation.com/alzheimers-disease-is-partly-genetic-studying-the-genes-that-delay-decline-in-some-may-lead-to-treatments-for-all-205914) such as Alzheimer’s and (https://theconversation.com/newly-discovered-genetic-variant-that-causes-parkinsons-disease-clarifies-why-the-condition-develops-and-how-to-halt-it-226435) Parkinson’s disease.
The long road ahead
The (https://theconversation.com/tenacious-curiosity-in-the-lab-can-lead-to-a-nobel-prize-mrna-research-exemplifies-the-unpredictable-value-of-basic-scientific-research-214770) road from laboratory bench to bedside is long and filled with obstacles, so don’t expect to see engineered Toxoplasma in the clinic anytime soon.
The obvious complication in using Toxoplasma for medical purposes is that it can produce a serious, lifelong infection that is currently incurable. Infecting someone with Toxoplasma can (https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html) damage critical organ systems, including the brain, eyes and heart.
However, up to (https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2008.00345.x) one-third of people worldwide currently carry Toxoplasma in their brain, apparently without incident. Emerging studies have correlated infection with increased risk of schizophrenia, rage disorder and recklessness, hinting that this quiet infection may be (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2021%2F6634807) predisposing some people to serious neurological problems.
The widespread prevalence of Toxoplasma infections may also be another complication, as it disqualifies many people from using it for treatment. Since the billions of people who already carry the parasite have developed immunity against future infection, therapeutic forms of Toxoplasma would be rapidly destroyed by their immune systems once injected.
In some cases, the benefits of using Toxoplasma as a drug delivery system may outweigh the risks. Engineering benign forms of this parasite could produce the proteins patients need without harming the organ – the brain – that defines who we are.
 
This article is republished from (https://theconversation.com) The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the (https://theconversation.com/a-common-parasite-could-one-day-deliver-drugs-to-the-brain-how-scientists-are-turning-toxoplasma-gondii-from-foe-into-friend-235928) original article.

(https://www.psypost.org/women-experience-mens-orgasm-as-a-femininity-achievement-new-study-suggests/) Women experience men’s orgasm as a femininity achievement, new study suggests
Aug 23rd 2024, 12:00

In a recent study published in the journal (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-024-01482-1) Sex Roles, researchers explored how women’s feelings of achievement and failure are influenced by their male partner’s orgasm during sexual encounters. The study revealed that women often perceive a man’s orgasm as an achievement of femininity, while the absence of a man’s orgasm can be seen as a failure of femininity, particularly for women who are more sensitive to traditional gender role expectations.
The motivation behind this study stems from a broader societal narrative that has long tied the quality of sex to the occurrence of orgasms for all involved. While these narratives promote mutual pleasure and equality in sexual experiences, they also create expectations that can lead to feelings of inadequacy or failure when these expectations are not met. This is especially true for women, who are often socialized to prioritize their partner’s pleasure over their own.
Although previous research has focused on how men perceive their female partner’s orgasm as a validation of their masculinity, there has been little investigation into how women experience their male partner’s orgasm—or the lack thereof. Given the societal scripts that often portray men’s orgasms as almost inevitable and biologically driven, the researchers wanted to investigate whether women also experience men’s orgasms as a form of personal success or failure, and if so, how this aligns with traditional gender roles.
“(https://www.psypost.org/men-view-womens-orgasms-masculinity-achievement-study-finds/) Previous research from our lab demonstrated that men experience women’s orgasms as a ‘masculinity achievement’; we were curious about how women experience men’s orgasms,” explained study authors (https://www.queensu.ca/psychology/van-anders-lab/) Sari van Anders (a professor at Queen’s University and Canada 150 Research Chair in Social Neuroendocrinology, Sexuality, & Gender/Sex) and (https://gws.wisc.edu/staff/chadwick-sara/) Sara Chadwick (an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison).
“Given that men’s orgasms typically occur and are expected during heterosex (sex between men and women who understand themselves as engaging in heterosexual activity), it was not clear whether women would experience them as an achievement, though we did think that women might feel a sense of failure if men’s orgasms did not occur. It was also not entirely clear how gender might be tied to feelings of achievement and failure for women when it came to men partners’ orgasms, as achievements in sexual contexts are typical seen as masculine.”
The researchers designed a study involving 440 women who identified as being sexually attracted to men and had previous sexual experience with male partners. Participants were recruited online through social media platforms and were asked to complete a detailed survey.
The survey included a series of vignettes where participants were asked to imagine a sexual encounter with a male partner who either did or did not orgasm. (The male partner was described as someone who typically orgasms with previous partners.) After reading the vignettes, participants were asked to reflect on their feelings of achievement, failure, femininity, and masculinity in response to the imagined scenario. The survey also assessed participants’ levels of sexual assertiveness and their stress related to conforming to traditional feminine gender roles.
The researchers found that women who imagined that their male partner orgasmed during a sexual encounter reported higher feelings of achievement and a stronger sense of femininity compared to those who imagined that their partner did not orgasm. This suggests that for many women, successfully bringing a male partner to orgasm can feel like a validation of their femininity and sexual prowess.
On the other hand, when women imagined that their male partner did not orgasm, they reported feeling a greater sense of failure. This was particularly pronounced among women who reported higher levels of feminine gender role stress — those who are more sensitive to failing to meet traditional expectations of femininity.
“It was not entirely clear to us that men’s orgasm occurrence would elicit a sense of achievement for women given that men’s orgasms are typically expected and seen as something that results from men’s sexual skills and bodies,” van Anders and Chadwick told PsyPost. “But, we did find that women generally experienced a sense of achievement when they imagined that a man’s orgasm occurred versus when they imagined it did not occur.”
“Notably, we did find that women felt a greater sense of both femininity and masculinity when they imagined that men orgasmed, but the effect was significantly larger for femininity. Further, femininity, but not masculinity, explained women’s feelings of achievement and failure in response to men’s orgasm occurrence vs. non-occurrence. As such, we concluded that women experienced men’s orgasm occurrence as a femininity achievement and men’s orgasm absence as a femininity failure.”
The researchers also found that women with higher levels of sexual assertiveness felt more achievement when their male partner orgasmed and were more resilient against feelings of failure when he did not. This suggests that women who feel more empowered in their sexual agency may navigate these dynamics differently, potentially buffering against the negative emotions associated with a partner’s failure to orgasm.
Finally, women who attributed their partner’s orgasm (or lack thereof) to their own actions or sexual skills felt more intense feelings of achievement or failure depending on the outcome. This indicates that personal responsibility plays a significant role in how women experience their partner’s sexual satisfaction.
“The more that women attributed the sexual scenario to themselves, the greater feelings of achievement and failure they felt in response to the man’s orgasm occurrence and non-occurrence,” van Anders and Chadwick said. “Men’s orgasm occurrence versus non-occurrence did not elicit different feelings of achievement and failure among women who attributed the scenario primarily to the man’s sexual skills and body.”
The researchers also highlighted some important nuances, challenging the assumption of gender equality in how partner orgasms are experienced and exposing the potential risks of orgasm coercion, where the pressure to ensure a partner’s orgasm can result in harmful behaviors.
“Previous research of ours found that men experience women’s orgasms (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224499.2017.1283484) as a masculinity achievement, and so it may be tempting to conclude that women and men experience partner orgasms in a similar or ‘gender-equal’ way,” van Anders and Chadwick said. “But, this is not the case! Femininity and masculinity achievements do not have the same social connotations – masculinity in men tends to be more socially valued and celebrated than femininity in women – and this means that the implications for partner orgasm occurrence and non-occurrence are different.”
“For example, one difference we found between our research studies was that men who were higher in masculine gender role stress had a greater sense of achievement in response to women’s orgasm occurrence. But in our new study, feminine gender role stress among women was not tied to women’s sense of achievement in response to men’s orgasms. Greater feminine gender role stress did however, predict greater feelings of failure for women when men’s orgasm did not occur.”
“It is important that people do not automatically assume that the sense of gendered achievement associated with a partner’s orgasm is a good thing for themselves or their partners,” van Anders and Chadwick added. “Tying one’s own sense of accomplishment and self-esteem to a partner’s orgasm occurrence risks centering one’s own need for validation over the partner’s actual experience, and this could lead to worse sex.”
For example, (https://www.psypost.org/new-study-sheds-light-on-the-dark-side-of/) in previous work, the researchers found that “some people are so focused on their own sense of accomplishment when it comes to a partner’s orgasm that they end up pressuring their partner to have orgasms in coercive ways,” the researchers explained. “And (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-021-02156-9) further research shows that coercive behaviors have negative impacts even if they are related to something seen as ‘positive,’ like trying to get a partner to orgasm.”
The study, while offering new insights into how women perceive men’s orgasms, does have some limitations. Firstly, the research relied on imagined scenarios rather than real-life experiences, which may not fully capture the complexities and emotional nuances of actual sexual encounters. Furthermore, the study did not account for other potentially influential factors, such as the specific sexual behaviors involved or the emotional context of the relationship, which could affect how orgasms are perceived.
“In future research, we hope to make comparisons between women’s and men’s experiences of partner orgasms to better understand how these might be different gendered experiences with different implications,” van Anders and Chadwick said. “For example, is the sense of achievement and failure experienced by women and men similar or different? How might feelings of achievement and failure motivate investments in a partner’s experiences of sexual pleasure, and how might these investments be expressed in positive or negative ways?”
The study, “(https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-024-01482-1) Gendered Failures and Achievements in Women’s Experiences of Men’s Orgasms,” was authored by Sara B. Chadwick, Daniel Shuchat, Eun Ju Son, and Sari M. van Anders.

Forwarded by:
Michael Reeder LCPC
Baltimore, MD

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